'I want to be a different kind of father': a qualitative analysis of adolescent fatherhood in Perú.

Adolescent parents and their offspring experience worse health outcomes throughout the life course. While over 90% of adolescent births occur in low- and middle-income countries, data from many such countries are lacking, particularly from fathers. This qualitative study conducted in Lima, Peru characterises the experience of adolescent fathers and identifies potential intervention targets. Interviews with young fathers and the mothers of their children were coded and analysed using thematic analysis and a grounded theory approach. Factors impacting their experience included family support, changes in their relationship with their partner, gender dynamics, and financial pressure. The study identified family and couple conflict, gendered expectations, and the father's personal development as potential intervention targets. Further research is needed to develop interventions that effectively engage adolescent fathers in low- and middle-income countries such as Peru, and support their transition to fatherhood.

Teenage pregnancy in Tambogrande, Peru: causes, consequences and cycles of violence and disadvantage.

Teenage pregnancy carries adverse consequences for health and well-being. In this article, we investigate the perceived causes, consequences and cycles of violence and disadvantage associated with teenage pregnancy in Tambogrande, Peru using an applied anthropological approach. Data were drawn from a larger project investigating the relationship between water insecurity and gender-based violence in Indonesia and Peru. The analysis presented here is derived from 49 semi-structured interviews and 5 focus groups with local community members and stakeholders in Peru. Study participants highlighted two main factors contributing to teenage pregnancy in Tambogrande: machismo and religious deterrents to contraceptive use. Participants described how these factors overlapped, resulting in gendered power imbalances that increased the risk of violence, decreased educational opportunities, and reduced the economic independence of women. However, study participants stated that educational interventions targeting machismo could reduce teenage pregnancy and break the associated cycle of disadvantage. Future research will further investigate local social and gender norms to inform the design of a rights-based educational intervention, targeting upstream factors associated with teenage pregnancy in this area.

Is the link between the Dark Tetrad and the acceptance of sexual violence mediated by sexual machismo?

Previous studies have established relationships between the Dark Tetrad traits and sexual violence and its acceptance through myths about this type of violence. Sexual violence is positively associated with machismo, with sexist beliefs having been found to be linked with the Dark Tetrad and with the acceptance of sexual violence. Using a community sample comprising 362 adults between the ages of 18 and 70 (M = 35.6, SD = 14.3) and three self-report measures, this cross-sectional study aimed to explore the mediating role of sexual machismo in the relationship between each of the Dark Tetrad traits and the acceptance of sexual violence, both in the overall sample and by gender, as well as whether a significant variance in this acceptance is explained by the "dark" traits, sexual machismo, and gender. In the regression, sexual machismo (the male) gender, and only Machiavellianism were uniquely associated with the acceptance of sexual violence, and sexual machismo partially mediated the associations between the Dark Tetrad and the acceptance of sexual violence. These findings indicate that being male and higher in sexism is more closely linked with the acceptance of sexual violence than most Dark Tetrad traits. Moreover, the associations between the Dark Tetrad, sexual machismo, and the acceptance of sexual violence were stronger in men, consistent with the notion that these traits facilitate a "male" exploitive mating strategy, which likely also extends to victim-blaming and positive attitudes about sexual violence more broadly. Lastly, the results emphasize the pervasiveness of beliefs about male superiority over women and its relationship with victim-blaming even in women.

Evaluation of the lights4violence program: reduction in machismo and acceptance of violence among adolescents in Europe.

BACKGROUND: Machismo and acceptance of violence (AV) against women are part of the social construction of hegemonic masculinity and are related to the risk of dating violence. This study aims to analyze the effectiveness of the Lights4Violence program in reducing machismo and AV in secondary school students from different European cities. METHODS: Quasi-experimental longitudinal study using a convenience sample of 1,146 high school students from different European cities (12-17 years old) including 575 intervention group students (59.1% girls) and 571 control group students (62.7% girls). We performed linear regression models to identify the effect of the intervention, modelling the difference in means in machismo and AV (dependent variables) between wave-2 and wave-1. RESULTS: An interaction was identified between the group variable and the empathy variable. In wave-2, girls with high empathy at baseline in the intervention group obtained lower mean AV scores (ß: -0.131; p = 0.004). However, the boys in the intervention group (reference: control group) with low empathy at baseline registered a significant increase in the mean values of machismo (ß: 0.247; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The importance of empathy is shown in the effectiveness of interventions to reduce machismo and AV in adolescents. While the Lights4Violence program focuses on promoting healthy relationships, there were some controversial results. It is possible that some children, especially those with less empathy, may have felt "challenged" during the intervention and/or assessment. This suggests the need for the development of interventions that also consider psychological processes and integrate the promotion of positive expressions of masculinity.

The impact of cultural stress and gender norms on alcohol use severity among Latino immigrant men.

Alcohol misuse affects 15 million people in the United States. Compared to White men, Latino men have disproportionately higher rates of both alcohol misuse and negative alcohol-related consequences (e.g. drunk driving, liver disease, alcohol dependence, HIV/AIDS). This cross sectional study examined how cultural stressors [immigration stress and negative context of reception (NCR)] coupled with traditional Latino male gender norms (machismo and caballerismo) influences alcohol use severity (AUS) among adult Latino immigrant men. Data for the present study was collected between 2017 and 2018 from 279 Cuban, Central American, and South American adult Latino men who immigrated to the US approximately 10 years prior. Results from hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed higher levels of perceived NCR (ß = 0.15, p = .01), and machismo (ß = 0.16, p = .02) were associated with greater AUS. Significant interaction effects were found between both cultural stressors and machismo [immigration stress x machismo (ß = 0.22, p < .001); NCR x machismo (ß = 0.22, p < .001)] whereby higher levels of machismo strengthened the association between cultural stress and AUS. Findings from the present study can inform culturally appropriate interventions aimed at mitigating alcohol use among Latino immigrant men.

Accounting for linguistic acculturation, coping, antisociality and depressive affect in the gender role-alcohol use relationship in Mexican American adolescents: a moderated mediation model for boys and girls.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies have established that gender roles are predictive of substance use for Mexican and Mexican American adolescents, both living in the U.S. and in Mexico. Objectives: The moderating effects of gender and acculturation and the mediating effects of antisociality, depressive affect, and adaptive and avoidant coping on the gender role-alcohol use relationship were examined in a sample of Mexican American adolescents. METHODS: Secondary data analyses were conducted on a sample of 955 (450 boys, 505 girls) Mexican American 7th and 8th grade adolescents participating in a school-based substance use intervention. RESULTS: For boys, path analyses yielded significant direct paths from aggressive masculinity to alcohol use. Bootstrapped mediation tests also yielded significant indirect paths through antisociality from assertive masculinity, affective femininity, aggressive masculinity, and the interaction of linguistic acculturation by affective femininity to alcohol use. For girls, the relationship between aggressive masculinity with alcohol use and the negative relationship of affective femininity with alcohol use were also mediated by adaptive coping, which is predictive of decreased substance use. CONCLUSION/IMPORTANCE: The present analyses confirm the importance of gender roles, functional mediators, and their interaction with acculturation in predicting substance use in Mexican American adolescents, with implications for the design of interventions to reduce substance use within the Mexican American community.

Traditional gender roles and alcohol use among Latinas/os: A review of the literature.

Research indicates alcohol use among Latinas/os occurs within a gendered context. Scholars surmise this is due to traditional gender roles (TGRs) of Latina/o culture, but without an analysis of the literature these assertions are unclear. Thus, this article provides a narrative review of the extant TGRs and alcohol use literature among Latinas/os. Thirteen articles met inclusion criteria. Across studies, findings were mixed, aside from those suggesting TGRs composed of hypermasculinity (i.e., traditional machismo) were robustly related to drinking. Tests of mediation and moderation indicated TGRs and alcohol use should be assessed within a multivariate framework. Future research should address these inconsistencies through methodological refinements. In addition, we suggest the integration of existing theoretical perspectives to assist with scholarly development in this area.

Linking Alcohol-Specific Masculine Norms and Drinking Behavior Among Latino Men.

A robust literature suggests men typically engage in more general and heavy alcohol use than women, and that many health disparities related to drinking are more prevalent among Latino men as compared to non-Latino White men. Researchers posit that adherence to masculine gender role scripts may be one reason men choose to drink alcohol. To date, research linking masculinity to drinking among Latinos has been mixed and has used broad measures for masculinity that are arguably quite distal from alcohol outcomes. Thus, the primary aim of this study was to prospectively examine the link between previous bidimensional conceptualizations of masculinity among Latino men (i.e., machismo) and drinking while incorporating a more proximal, alcohol-specific measure of masculinity. Using data collected from two time points, results indicated that baseline endorsements of masculine norms characterized by drinking to excess was robustly related to both general and problematic alcohol use six months later. Conversely, baseline endorsements of masculine norms characterized by controlled drinking was related to later reductions of alcohol-related problems. Broader bi-dimensional measures of machismo (i.e., traditional machismo and caballerismo) at baseline were also included in each model and were unrelated to later general and problematic drinking. These data suggest there is merit to employing masculinity scales that more specifically capture the role of masculinity on alcohol outcomes among Latino emerging adults. In doing this, findings pertaining to masculinity and drinking may be more easily translated into prevention and intervention settings.

Cultural values and romantic relationship satisfaction in Mexican adolescents: The moderating effects of parental psychological control and gender.

INTRODUCTION: Cultural values and parent-adolescent relationships may impact adolescents' romantic relationship quality. The goal of this study was to examine whether perceived mothers' and fathers' psychological control and gender moderated associations between cultural values (i.e., machismo, caballerismo, views of female virginity) and romantic relationship satisfaction in Mexican adolescents. METHODS: Self-report survey data were collected from 213 adolescents (M = 14.59 years old; 50.5% girls) from two public schools in Mexico. All participants were in a romantic relationship at time of study, and reported on their age, gender, endorsement of cultural values (i.e., machismo, caballerismo, views of female virginity), perceived parental psychological control, and romantic satisfaction. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on a romantic relationship satisfaction scale. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess interactions between cultural values, mothers' and fathers' psychological control, and gender on romantic relationship satisfaction. RESULTS: Findings revealed adolescents who endorsed caballerismo reported higher relationship satisfaction. These associations were strongest for adolescent girls reporting low maternal psychological control and adolescent boys reporting high maternal psychological control. Perceived fathers' psychological control did not moderate associations between cultural values and romantic satisfaction. No associations were found between machismo, female virginity, and romantic relationship satisfaction. CONCLUSION: Adolescents' caballersimo values were linked to higher relationship satisfaction. Findings suggest that parent education programs in Mexico may benefit from teaching parents to instill values of caballerismo in their romantically involved adolescents. Additionally, specialists working with Mexican adolescent girls may help them reframe perceived psychologically controlling behaviors into attempts to communicate affection.

The Association of Cultural and Structural Factors with Perceived Medical Mistrust Among Young Adult Latinos in Rural Oregon.

Although previous studies have examined the impact of medical mistrust on the health and health care seeking behaviors of diverse populations, including Latinos, limited research has explored cultural and structural factors that contribute to medical mistrust. The aim of the present study was to examine the associations between cultural and structural factors and perceived medical mistrust among a sample of young adult Latinos living in rural Oregon. We conducted in-person interviews with 499 young adult Latinos (ages 18-25). Medical mistrust was assessed using a modified version of the Group-Based Medical Mistrust Scale, which has been used with Latino populations. We included three cultural (acculturation, machismo, and familismo) and one structural (perceived everyday discrimination) variables, all measured using previously validated scales. Socio-demographic variables (eg, age, gender, income, educational level, employment) were also included in multivariable linear regression models. We found that everyday discrimination and traditional machismo values were associated with medical mistrust, the latter primarily among Latino women. It is possible that Latinos living in relatively new minority/immigrant settlement areas (such as rural Oregon) may be more vulnerable to experiencing discrimination, which in turn, may erode trust in health care providers. On the other hand, a strong ethnic identity, including the endorsement of machismo values, may serve as a protective mechanism for Latinos confronted by racial/ethnic discrimination. Culturally responsive, socio-cultural, and societal interventions are warranted to tackle the pervasive and ripple effects that racial/ethnic discrimination has on the health of Latinos and other minority populations.

Dating Violence Attitudes Among Latino College Students: An Examination of Gender, Machismo, and Marianismo.

This study sought to fill a gap in the literature by exploring the association of gender, machismo and marianismo, and acculturation to dating violence (DV) attitudes among a sample of Latino college students. A total of 305 students were recruited from a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI) located on the United States-Mexico border. Results showed significant differences in all forms of DV attitudes across gender. Separate regression models for men and women showed a pattern of endorsing the traditional gender role of machismo was predictive of tolerant DV attitudes for men and women. The marianismo dimension of chastity and virtuosity was associated to a decrease in tolerant DV attitudes among men. In addition, acculturation's relationship to DV attitudes and gender role ideology was not significant. Overall, the findings highlight the need for DV programs to address culturally-based understandings of gender roles and their association to DV attitudes.

Traditional Gender Roles and the Stress-Alcohol Relationship among Latina/o College Students.

BACKGROUND: Latina/o college students have been shown to engage in more high risk drinking behavior than students from other ethnic minority groups, and are more likely to experience certain negative alcohol related consequences as a result of drinking. Previous research links stress to drinking among college students and indicates drinking occurs within a gendered context. Although this suggests an effect of gender role socialization, studies exploring these relationships among Latina/os are lacking. OBJECTIVES: To explore potential relationships of stress, gender role prescriptions of the heritage culture, and drinking among Latina/o college students. Specifically, to explore potential interactions between stress and multiple dimensions of machismo and marianismo as related to alcohol use. METHOD: Latina/o undergraduates (N = 248) completed a questionnaire. Self-reported stress, quantity of alcohol consumption, and frequency of binge drinking were recorded for all participants. Gender role prescriptions were assessed via endorsement of two dimensions of machismo (men) or two dimensions of marianismo (women). RESULTS: Stress was positively related to general quantity for women. Each dimension of machismo was distinctly related to binge drinking for men. Significant interactions emerged between both machismo and marianismo and stress as related to both alcohol use outcomes. For women, the moderating pattern between marianismo and stress varied according to type of alcohol use. Conclusions/Importance: Gender role beliefs influence the relationship between stress and alcohol use among Latina/o college students. Future research should account for the intersection of gender and culture when considering the stress-alcohol relationship.

'Love and trust, you can be blinded': HIV risk within relationships among Latina women in Miami, Florida.

OBJECTIVES: Latina women are disproportionately affected by HIV in the US, and account for 30% of all HIV infections in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The main risk for Latina women is heterosexual contact. Little is known about the relational and cultural factors that may impact women's HIV risk perception. This study aims to describe Latina women's perception of their HIV risk within a relational, cultural, and linguistic context. DESIGN: Eight focus groups of Latina women (n = 28), four English speaking groups and four Spanish speaking groups, were conducted between December 2013 and May 2014. Women were recruited from a diversion program for criminal justice clients and by word of mouth. Eligibility criteria included the following: self-identify as Hispanic/Latino, 18-49 years of age, and self-identify as heterosexual. A two-level open coding analytic approach was conducted to identify themes across groups. RESULTS: Most participants were foreign-born (61%) and represented the following countries: Cuba (47%), Honduras (17.5%), Mexico (12%), as well as Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Colombia, and Venezuela (15%). Participant ages ranged between 18 and 49, with a mean age of 32 years. Relationship factors were important in perceiving HIV risk including male infidelity, women's trust in their male partners, relationship type, and getting caught up in the heat of the moment. For women in the English speaking groups, drug use and trading sex for drugs were also reasons cited for putting them at risk for HIV. English speaking women also reported that women should take more responsibility regarding condom use. CONCLUSION: Findings emphasize the importance of taking relational and cultural context into account when developing HIV prevention programs for Latina women. Interventions targeting English speaking Latina women should focus on women being more proactive in their sexual health; interventions focused on Spanish speaking women might target their prevention messages to either men or couples.

Exploring the Masculine Identity in the Context of HIV Prevention in Chile.

PURPOSE: This study aims to describe human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related knowledge and beliefs, as well as understanding attitudes towards masculinity in the context of HIV prevention, held among Chilean men. DESIGN: This study reports the qualitative findings of a sequential qualitative-quantitative mixed methodology study: Bringing men into HIV Prevention in Chile, NIH R01 TW007674-03. METHODS: Twenty in-depth interviews using a qualitative, descriptive approach to elicit information for the study were conducted among men residing in two communities of low socio-economic status in Santiago, Chile. FINDINGS: Content analysis of interviews revealed three main themes regarding machismo and how it relates to HIV: sexuality and machismo, the changing nature of machismo, and violence against women. CONCLUSIONS: Addressing HIV and intimate partner violence through developing education programs tailored to meet the needs of Chilean men are needed to include men in HIV prevention efforts. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Specifically, incorporating ideas of what men consider healthy masculinity and working to destigmatize men who have sex with men are important steps in addressing the negative aspects of machismo.

Conceptualisations of masculinity and self-reported medication adherence among HIV-positive Latino men in Los Angeles, California, USA.

HIV-positive Latino men have been found to have poorer medication adherence compared to Whites. This study sought to identify how cultural conceptualisations of masculinity are associated with self-reported medication adherence among Latino men. A total of 208 HIV-positive men reported the number of doses of antiretroviral medication missed in the previous seven days (dichotomised at 100% adherence versus less). Conceptualisations of masculinity consisted of traditional machismo (e.g., power and aggressive attitudes, which are normally associated with negative stereotypes of machismo) and caballerismo (e.g., fairness, respect for elders and the importance of family). Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with adherence. The mean adherence was 97% (SD = 6.5%; range = 57-100%). In all, 77% of the participants reported 100% adherence in the previous seven days. Caballerismo was associated with a greater likelihood (OR = 1.77; 95% CI: 1.08-2.92; p = 0.03) and machismo with a lower likelihood (OR = 0.60; 95% CI: 0.38-0.95; p = 0.03) of medication adherence. In addition, higher medication side-effects were found to be associated with a lower likelihood (OR = 0.59; 95% CI: 0.43-0.81; p = 0.001) of medication adherence. These findings reinforce the importance of identifying cultural factors that may affect medication adherence among HIV-positive Latino men resident in the USA.

The native potato, a symbol of macho expression in the Quechua culture of Peru.

The present field research focuses on the native potato varieties, Wira pasña and Llumchuy waqachi, cultivated in the Peruvian highlands at roughly 4,000 m above sea level. The objective is to analyze the macho essence of the names assigned to the native potato, names that represent the social manifestation of women in Quechua culture. Participant observation and interviews about the different daily activities of the participants facilitated the research on the macho essence of the names of the native potato in the Quechua culture. The preponderant Quechua oral sources in the Peruvian Andes did not allow us to identify exactly how names associated with the macho way of social life were assigned to the native potatoes.

Predictors of Alcohol Use Among Latinx Men in South Florida: Machismo as a Correlate of Alcohol Use Frequency and Quantity.

Previous studies have found Latinx cultural values to be positively associated with healthy behaviors. This study aims to examine socioeconomic and cultural correlates of alcohol use among Latinx adult men living in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The study sample included 122 Latinx adult men (mean age = 44, SD = 10), predominantly of South and Central American origin. Data was collected using REDCap. Interviews included the Timeline Follow-Back scale for alcohol use. Results indicate that Caribbean participants were significantly less likely to report drinking in the past 90 days (aOR = 0.08, p = 0.042) compared to their Venezuelan counterparts. Higher machismo scores were associated with low drinking frequency (aRR = 0.67, p = 0.043), while no significant associations were found between machismo and other drinking outcomes. Drinking quantity and frequency are significantly associated with higher income and authorized immigration status in the US among Latinx men in South Florida. Higher machismo scores were associated with low drinking frequency.

"There Is Nothing I Cannot Achieve": Empowering Latin American Women Through Agricultural Education.

Higher education, a key driver of women's empowerment, is still segregated by gender across the world. Agricultural higher education is a field that is male-dominated, even though internationally women play a large role in agricultural production. The purpose of this study was to understand the experience, including challenges and coping strategies, of women from 10 Latin American countries attending an agricultural university in Latin America. The participants were 28 women students with a mean age of 20.9 ± 1.8 years. Following informed consent and assurance of confidentiality, four focus group sessions (one for each year of study with a mean duration of 81 min) were conducted in Spanish. The central question was, "what has been your experience at the university?" Sessions were recorded and transcribed. Thematic coding was performed independently by two teams of researchers (from Latin America and North America), with the resulting schemas combined through mutual discussion. Member checking, auditing, and reflexivity contributed to trustworthiness of the process. Students reported that the personal qualities needed for success included determination, persistence, and self-efficacy. Many described an empowerment process, including increased discipline and self-efficacy from the first to fourth year of study. University life encompassed six themes: university structure and discipline (part of the exosystem), two supportive microsystems (friends and classmates and institutional support) as well as three challenges (academics, peers, and machismo). Cultural influences instantiated in students' daily experiences included familism, machismo, and religious faith. Students anticipated futures involving further education and contributions to society. We conclude that higher education in agriculture can serve as an effective means of empowering women to feed the world.

Relationship Between Personality Traits and Violence Involvement -a Study of High School Students in Northern Iraq.

Background: violence is considered to be a global phenomenon; committing violence significantly impacts individuals physical and psychological states. There are several risk factors for increasing violence, of which personality traits represent the most substantial risk. Objective: the current research aims to examine the association among the 'big five' risk factors and involvement in violence among high school students in the north of Iraq. Methods: The sample comprised 468 students, 242 boys, and 226 girls aged 16 to 20. Two self-report instruments were used for data collection. Firstly, we divided the Maudsly Violence Questionnaire into two factors: acceptance of violence and machismo. Secondly, we used the Big Five Inventory, which includes questions on extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, consciousness, and openness. Result: the result showed a significant positive correlation between extraversion, neuroticism, and violence involvement. Agreeableness, openness, and consciousness were negatively correlated. In terms of demographic variables, the findings suggest that boys are more likely to be involved in violence than girls. The results indicated that personality traits neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and consciousness predicted violence. Conclusion: personality traits significantly impact individuals' behaviors that reflect their lives. The potential for violence is a predictor for detecting and preventing violent actions and could be used in many justices and governmental systems.

The Mediating Role of Sexual Self-Efficacy on Protected Sex.

BACKGROUND: Ascribed traditional gender role has rarely been examined in the topical area of protected sex. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between HIV knowledge, ascribed cultural gender roles of machismo and marianismo, acculturation, attitudes toward risky sexual behaviors and sexual self-efficacy on protected sex, and the mediating effect of sexual self-efficacy between these predictors and protected sex. METHODS: Part of a larger study, Hispanic college students from a Hispanic-serving institution in a U.S. southern border city were recruited. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Sexual self-efficacy was found a significant mitigating factor against sexual risks associated with machismo as well as a positive reinforcing element on attitudes toward protected sex. Study findings have implications toward the development of culturally sensitive evidence-based interventions that promote sexual self-efficacy skills among Hispanic males who strongly identify with culturally ascribed gender roles.