A history of calcium orthophosphates (CaPO4) and their biomedical applications.

The historical development of a scientific knowledge on calcium orthophosphates (CaPO4) from 1770-s till 1950 is described. Many forgotten and poorly known historical facts and approaches have been extracted from old publications and then they have been analyzed, systematized and reconsidered from the modern point of view. The chosen time scale starts with the earliest available studies of 1770-s (to the best of my findings, CaPO4 had been unknown before), passes through the entire 19th century and finishes in 1950, because since then the amount of publications on CaPO4 rapidly increases and the subject becomes too broad. Furthermore, since publications of the second half of the 20th century are easily accessible, the substantial amount of them has been already reviewed by other researchers. The reported historical findings clearly demonstrate that the substantial amount of the scientific facts and experimental approaches has been known for very many decades and, in fact, the considerable quantity of relatively recent investigations on CaPO4 is just either a further development of the earlier studies or a rediscovery of the already forgotten knowledge.

Blood transfusion; additional historical aspects. Part 2. The introduction of chemical anticoagulants; trials of 'Phosphate of soda'.

The pioneers of transfusion medicine around the turn of the 19th into the 20th centuries struggled with the awkward propensity of shed blood to clot. This article, a companion to a previous one (Boulton, 2013, Submitted for publication), describes in more detail how they recognised a potential for chemical anticoagulants which led to the introduction for a short period of sodium phosphate to aid blood transfusion: these cases preceded the introduction of citrate (Mollison, 2000, British Journal of Haematology, 108, 13-18).

A detailed history of calcium orthophosphates from 1770s till 1950.

Due to the chemical similarity with human bones and teeth, calcium orthophosphates are the inorganic substances of a special importance for the human being: they appear to be the excellent compounds to construct artificial bone grafts. In addition, calcium orthophosphates are necessary for both animals and plants as the source of important chemical elements. Obviously, these facts have not become apparent immediately; thus, providing the detailed annals of the knowledge development on the subject is the purpose of this review. The chosen time scale started with the earliest available studies of 1770s (to the best of my findings, calcium orthophosphates had been unknown before), passed through the entire 19th century and finished in 1950, because since then the amount of publications rapidly increased and the subject became too broad. In addition, since publications of the second half of the 20th century are easily accessible, other scientists have already reviewed the substantial amount of them. Many forgotten and poorly known historical facts, names, approaches, concepts and misconceptions have been extracted from the old publications. To maximize objectivity, an extensive quotation has been used. Then the old data have been systematized, reanalyzed and reconsidered from the modern points of view. The reported historical findings clearly demonstrate that many famous scientists of the past contributed to the subject. Furthermore, the significant quantity of the modern scientific facts, ideas and experimental approaches appear to have been known for very many decades and, in fact, a good deal of the recent investigations on calcium orthophosphates is just either a further development of the earlier studies or a rediscovery of the already forgotten knowledge.