Risk factors affecting the food safety risk in food business operations for risk-based inspection: A systematic review.

Foodborne illnesses result in a high disease burden worldwide, making food safety control of food business operations (FBOs) an urgent issue. With public agencies and FBOs facing challenges in monitoring the complex food supply chain with limited resources, scientific and objective insights into those factors that are related to food safety at FBOs are needed. These factors can be used as input for risk-based inspection. We conducted a systematic review to identify and analyze risk factors affecting the FBOs' food safety risk. We used a set of predefined search strings in Scopus and Web of Science to search for scientific manuscripts published in the English language between January 1 2003 and February 1 2023. The review identified 53 relevant studies and 43 risk factors. The presence of certified personnel turned out to be the most cited factor. Nearly half of the extracted factors had only been investigated in one study. Additional challenges were identified for developing a universal ready-to-use list of factors for the building of a risk-based inspection method, such as the limitation in the applicability of identified factors in different types of FBOs, and the variability in conclusions between publications for certain factors (e.g., FBO location and inspection history), stressing the need for additional research. Future studies should also prioritize standardizing definitions and measurements, particularly regarding compliance factors. In general, the current list of factors brought forward in our review lays the groundwork for building a transparent, objective, and risk-based method for food safety inspections of FBOs.

Enhancing the value of meat inspection records for broiler health and welfare surveillance: longitudinal detection of relational patterns.

BACKGROUND: Abattoir data are under-used for surveillance. Nationwide surveillance could benefit from using data on meat inspection findings, but several limitations need to be overcome. At the producer level, interpretation of meat inspection findings is a notable opportunity for surveillance with relevance to animal health and welfare. In this study, we propose that discovery and monitoring of relational patterns between condemnation conditions co-present in broiler batches at meat inspection can provide valuable information for surveillance of farmed animal health and welfare. RESULTS: Great Britain (GB)-based integrator meat inspection records for 14,045 broiler batches slaughtered in nine, four monthly intervals were assessed for the presence of surveillance indicators relevant to broiler health and welfare. K-means and correlation-based hierarchical clustering, and association rules analyses were performed to identify relational patterns in the data. Incidence of condemnation showed seasonal and temporal variation, which was detected by association rules analysis. Syndrome-related and non-specific relational patterns were detected in some months of meat inspection records. A potentially syndromic cluster was identified in May 2016 consisting of infection-related conditions: pericarditis, perihepatitis, peritonitis, and abnormal colour. Non-specific trends were identified in some months as an unusual combination of condemnation reasons in broiler batches. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the detection of relational patterns in meat inspection records could provide producer-level surveillance indicators with relevance to broiler chicken health and welfare.

Identification and classification of sampling sites for pathogen environmental monitoring programs for Listeria monocytogenes: Results from an expert elicitation.

Pathogen Environmental Monitoring (PEM) programs for Listeria are important to reduce the contamination risk for exposed Ready-To-Eat (RTE) food products with L. monocytogenes. Specific guidance to identify appropriate sampling sites in individual facilities, including equipment and other sites, will facilitate effective L. monocytogenes control and PEM programs. Key goals of Listeria PEM programs are to (i) identify and eliminate niches that allow for Listeria growth and survival and (ii) verify and validate preventive controls such as sanitation programs and sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs), sanitary equipment and facility design. Here, an initial list of 77 sampling sites covering Zones 1-4 was assembled based on current literature and guidance documents with initial classification of sites into (i) Zones 1, 2, 3, and 4; (ii) likely niches or transfer sites, and (iii) verification sites or indicator sites. An expert elicitation that included responses from 16 food safety professionals was used to (i) refine sampling site descriptions and identify 6 new sampling sites that were not included in the original list, (ii) refine classification of sites (e.g., into niches versus transfer sites), and (iii) rank sites on level of importance from 1 to 5. The final sample site list includes sampling sites classified by zone and type of site as well as relative importance of site based on reviewer feedback. This document thus provides an initial set of sites that can be used by industry to help in the development or refinement of Listeria PEM programs. The availability of this ranked list of sampling sites should reduce barriers to development of science based Listeria PEM programs.

Selection of risk factors to be included in the Canadian Food Inspection Agency risk assessment inspection model for food establishments.

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) is developing a risk assessment model for food establishments. Previous research on the significance of food safety risk factors determined by literature review and expert advice served as the bases for the current study, to further refine, discriminate and select the most important criteria to be included in the model. This process considered the availability of data sources, the clarity and measurability of the selected factors, undertook the elimination of lower-rated risk factors and grouped those with similar focus of attention, enabling the selection of a final list of risk factors for the model. A method of assessment for the remaining factors was then proposed to allow the quantification of individual risk factors within the model. From the 155 risk factors initially identified, 17 consolidated factors were kept and will be considered for the development of the risk assessment model.

[Control of antimicrobial resistance in the food chain: a narrative review]. / Contrasto all'antibiotico-resistenza nella catena alimentare: una revisione narrativa.

A poor environmental management and the deterioration of health and hygiene conditions (lack of awareness and attention to hygienic standards, to measures for preventing transmission of infection, and to appropriate use of antimicrobial therapies) facilitate the selection, release and diffusion of resistant pathogens in the environment, which can very easily contaminate the food chain. Antimicrobial resistance is a major problem worldwide, involving many sectors: medicine, veterinary medicine, breeding, agriculture, economy and commerce. In addition, the expanding globalization and increasing movements of both goods and people across countries and continents have drastically exacerbated the situation. In this difficult context, professionals of both the food and health sectors have an important role to play and their active participation is essential, together with that of citizens and patients themselves. For this very reason, national programs to combat antimicrobial resistance are needed, with a special focus on surveillance, antimicrobial stewardship, training of professionals and citizens, all the while assuring the availability of economic resources to achieve these goals. The "One Health" initiative is intended to strengthen the link between different scientific disciplines, such as human and veterinary medicine, since the phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance may be further aggravated by microbial transmission from animals to humans, directly or indirectly through the consumption of food. The aim of this narrative review is to give an overview of what is known about antimicrobial resistance related to food chain, to illustrate its extent and epidemiology in Italy, in Europe and globally, and to discuss the measures required to fight antimicrobial resistance including good practices on the use of antibiotics.

Headspace solid-phase microextraction for wine volatile analysis.

The most commonly used technique to prepare samples for the analysis of wine volatile is the headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME). This method has gained popularity in last few years, as it is a unique solventless preparation technique. In this paper, a summary of recently published studies using HS-SPME for the analysis of wine aromas, with special emphasis on the method developed, has been compiled. Several papers are discussed in detail, mainly with respect to the SPME conditions used. A brief summary of the reviews related to HS-SPME analysis is given and discussed. Several parameters affecting the HS-SPME, such as the salt concentration and the agitation conditions, are used in the same way as used in several papers. The HS-SPME extraction proved to be sufficiently sensitive to satisfy legislative requirements related to low detection and quantification limits as well as method accuracy and precision requirements. However, in order to achieve the best performance and precision, the protocol needs to be optimized for each case. The effect of different parameters must be well characterized to ensure correct extraction and desorption to ensure the transfer of extracted compounds into the analytical system. The operating parameters, such as time, temperature, and agitation, must then be kept constant for all the samples.

Food and feed chemical contaminants in the European Union: Regulatory, scientific, and technical issues concerning chemical contaminants occurrence, risk assessment, and risk management in the European Union.

A priority of the European Union is the control of risks possibly associated with chemical contaminants in food and undesirable substances in feed. Following an initial chapter describing the main contaminants detected in food and undesirable substances in feed in the EU, their main sources and the factors which affect their occurrence, the present review focuses on the "continous call for data" procedure that is a very effective system in place at EFSA to make possible the exposure assessment of specific contaminants and undesirable substances. Risk assessment of contaminants in food atances in feed is carried currently in the European Union by the CONTAM Panel of EFSA according to well defined methodologies and in collaboration with competent international organizations and with Member States.

A Stochastic Model to Assess the Effect of Meat Inspection Practices on the Contamination of the Pig Carcasses.

The objective of meat inspection is to promote animal and public health by preventing, detecting, and controlling hazards originating from animals. With the improvements of sanitary level in pig herds, the hazards profile has shifted and the inspection procedures no longer target major foodborne pathogens (i.e., not risk based). Additionally, carcass manipulations performed when searching for macroscopic lesions can lead to cross-contamination. We therefore developed a stochastic model to quantitatively describe cross-contamination when consecutive carcasses are submitted to classic inspection procedures. The microbial hazard used to illustrate the model was Salmonella, the data set was obtained from Brazilian slaughterhouses, and some simplifying assumptions were made. The model predicted that due to cross-contamination during inspection, the prevalence of contaminated carcass surfaces increased from 1.2% to 95.7%, whereas the mean contamination on contaminated surfaces decreased from 1 logCFU/cm² to -0.87 logCFU/cm², and the standard deviations decreased from 0.65 to 0.19. These results are explained by the fact that, due to carcass manipulations with hands, knives, and hooks, including the cutting of contaminated lymph nodes, Salmonella is transferred to previously uncontaminated carcasses, but in small quantities. These small quantities can easily go undetected during sampling. Sensitivity analyses gave insight into the model performance and showed that the touching and cutting of lymph nodes during inspection can be an important source of carcass contamination. The model can serve as a tool to support discussions on the modernization of pig carcass inspection.

Towards more consistent and effective food control: learning from the views of food business operators.

We surveyed the opinions of Finnish food business operators (FBOs) about the uniformity of local official food control and its importance for dairy, fishery and meat plants. A total of 136 FBOs responded to the questionnaire. Most FBOs considered official food control to be important for food safety and were generally satisfied with its quality. However, they often did not perceive official food control as being uniform, and 23% even considered it arbitrary. Small-sized FBOs were particularly critical of the relevance of control actions. The better the FBOs assessed their cooperation with the inspector, the higher they assessed the quality, uniformity and benefits of official food control. The cooperative approach in control practices should be emphasized to support the positive views of FBOs about official food control, thus promoting food safety. Cross-audits among local food control units are recommended to improve the FBOs' experience of uniformity of food control.

Food Safety Program Performance Assessment in Tennessee, 2003-2011.

To assess food safety program performance, the Tennessee Department of Health conducted food service surveys of randomly selected establishments and reviewed routine inspection reports by environmental health specialists (EHSs) of the same facilities. The individual restaurant sanitation scores, along with types and frequencies of violations noted by the survey team, were compared with records from the previous year. In addition, EHSs were observed as they each performed two routine inspections. Survey team staff consistently marked more critical violations than did field EHS staff. Differences between survey teams and field EHS staff in marking critical violations were statistically significant for all 10 critical violations in the first review cycle, 8 in the second cycle, and 7 in the third cycle. Over the course of the review period, there was a small but measurable improvement in scoring by field EHS staff. Marking of critical violations increased, sanitation scores decreased, and discrepancies with survey teams in both areas decreased.

Inspector Perceptions of the Food and Drug Administration's Newest Recommended Food Facility Inspection Format: Training Matters.

The Food and Drug Administration publishes the Food Code to guide restaurant inspections. The most recent version proposes a three-tier system categorizing violations as priority, priority foundation, and core. This study used a scenario-based questionnaire to examine inspector perceptions and preferences for inspection formats. Results suggest that inspectors would be able to maintain consistent evaluations when changing to the three-tier system, although the classifying terms under the three-tier system were confusing. Additionally, inspectors were not very positive about the new system; they were concerned that the new system would not be easy to understand and use, inspections would take a longer time, it would not accurately reflect the amount of risk associated with violations, and it would not be easy for consumers and managers to understand and use. The results suggest the need for additional training for inspectors before adoption, especially on the rationale and benefits of changing to a three-tier system.

Consumer Perception of the Food and Drug Administration's Newest Recommended Food Facility Inspection Format: Words Matter.

The Food and Drug Administration recommended restaurant inspection scores change to a format that incorporated three new categories of violations: priority, priority foundation, and core. It was uncertain whether interested consumers would value the more in-depth information or become more confused. The purpose of this study was to assess consumer perception of the recommended inspection system. Data were collected from an online survey. Results showed that consumers want convenient access to the information either online or on the wall of restaurants, and some consumers do want to read inspection reports and use them in making dining decisions. Choice of restaurant inspection format did appear to change consumer understanding and perceptions about some of the violations. Results also demonstrated the importance of the words used to categorize violations.

Estimation of total soluble solids in grape berries using a hand-held NIR spectrometer under field conditions.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have reported the potential of near infrared (NIR) spectral analysers for monitoring the ripeness of grape berries as an alternative to wet chemistry methods. This study covers various aspects regarding the calibration and implementation of predictive models of total soluble solids (TSS) in grape berries using laboratory and in-field collected NIR spectra. RESULTS: The performance of the calibration models obtained under laboratory conditions indicated that at least 700 berry samples are required to assure enough prediction accuracy. A statistically significant error reduction (ΔRMSECV = 0.1°Brix) with P < 0.001 was observed when measuring berries without epicuticular wax, which was negligible from a practical point of view. Under field conditions, the prediction errors (RMSEP = 1.68°Brix, and SEP = 1.67°Brix) were close to those obtained with the laboratory dataset (RMSEP = 1.42°Brix, SEP = 1.40°Brix). CONCLUSION: This work clarifies several methodological factors to develop a protocol for in-field assessing TSS in grape berries using an affordable, non-invasive, portable NIR spectral analyser. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Impact of a letter-grade program on restaurant sanitary conditions and diner behavior in New York City.

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the impact of the New York City restaurant letter-grading program on restaurant hygiene, food safety practices, and public awareness. METHODS: We analyzed data from 43,448 restaurants inspected between 2007 and 2013 to measure changes in inspection score and violation citations since program launch in July 2010. We used binomial regression to assess probability of scoring 0 to 13 points (A-range score). Two population-based random-digit-dial telephone surveys assessed public perceptions of the program. RESULTS: After we controlled for repeated restaurant observations, season of inspection, and chain restaurant status, the probability of scoring 0 to 13 points on an unannounced inspection increased 35% (95% confidence interval [CI]=31%, 40%) 3 years after compared with 3 years before grading. There were notable improvements in compliance with some specific requirements, including having a certified kitchen manager on site and being pest-free. More than 91% (95% CI=88%, 94%) of New Yorkers approved of the program and 88% (95% CI=85%, 92%) considered grades in dining decisions in 2012. CONCLUSIONS: Restaurant letter grading in New York City has resulted in improved sanitary conditions on unannounced inspection, suggesting that the program is an effective regulatory tool.

A proposed framework for an appropriate evaluation scheme for microorganisms as novel foods with a health claim in Europe.

This paper concerns the procedure and the scientific approach to obtain market authorization for a microorganism to be recognized as a novel food with a health claim. Microorganisms that have not been traditionally used during food production in Europe prior to 1997 are considered as novel foods, which should undergo an in-depth characterization and safety assessment before being authorized on the European market. If a novel food bacterium is claimed to provide a beneficial effect on health, these claims must also be investigated before they can be authorized. Some requirements to obtain novel food certification are shared with those required to obtain a health claim. Although regulation exists that deals with these issues for foods in general, bacteria in food raise a specific set of questions that are only minimally addressed in official documentation. We propose a framework and suggest a list of criteria that should be assessed to obtain marketing authorization and health claim for a bacterium in accordance with European health policy.

Molecular Serotyping and Pathogenic Potential of Listeria monocytogenes Isolated from Milk and Milk Products in Tamil Nadu, India.

Listeria monocytogenes, an important bacterial pathogen, is responsible for foodborne illnesses worldwide. Examination of food samples for the presence of L. monocytogenes and assessment of their pathogenicity is usually an effective strategy in the prevention of listeriosis. In the present study, we have tested 307 samples of milk and milk products from various places in Tamil Nadu, India for the presence of L. monocytogenes using ISO 11290 and U.S. Food and Drug Administration Bacteriological Analytical Manual methods. 16S rDNA sequencing and duplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis for prs and iap genes were used to identify L. monocytogenes at the species level. Fifteen of the 307 samples screen tested positive for L. monocytogenes. Molecular serotyping of the L. monocytogenes isolates by multiplex PCR revealed the predominance of the serogroups 1/2a and 4b. Fourteen of the 15 isolates contained all the virulence genes (inlA, inlB, hlyA, and plcA) screened for using multiplex PCR. Only one isolate of L. monocytogenes was negative for the plcA gene and in vitro phosphatidylinositol-phospholipase C activity. L. monocytogenes strains that belong to the serogroup 4b exhibited higher nematocidal activity against Caenorhabditis elegans than the serogroup 1/2a. Worms infected with L. monocytogenes were symptomatic with aberrant contraction of body muscles, loss of pharyngeal pumping, and decreased locomotion, which highlights the pathogenic potential of the L. monocytogenes isolates.

Characteristics of Noncompliant Food Handling Establishments and Factors That Inhibit Compliance in a Regional Health Authority, Jamaica.

The Jamaican food safety regulatory framework is embodied in the Public Health Act of 1974 with public health inspectors/ environmental health officers (PHIs/EHOs) empowered with its enforcement. The North East Regional Health Authority (NERHA) has consistently faced challenges in achieving national certification targets for food-handling establishments (FHEs). The aim of the authors' study was to identify and describe noncompliant FHEs and to identify factors influencing their noncompliance. FHEs (N = 248) were randomly selected and each owner/operator targeted for interview. Substantially more FHEs were compliant and respondents from compliant FHEs were more likely to have a valid food handlers' permit. Urban FHEs were less likely to be compliant than rural. The major barriers to compliance were forgetting to apply for a license and lack of money to correct infractions. NERHA should encourage FHE owners/operators to assume greater responsibility for the certification of their premises and to hold PHIs more accountable.

A simplified evaluation system of surface-related lung lesions of pigs for official meat inspection under industrial slaughter conditions in Germany.

BACKGROUND: European and national administrative legislation require objective evaluation systems for organ lesions at pig slaughter. These results can be used as basis for herd health improvement programs by farmers and their consulting veterinarians. Various studies have shown that the current evaluation and recording of lesions by authorized meat inspectors are not reliable and produce significant inter-rater disagreement especially for lung lesions in pigs. The objectives of this study were to increase the usability of official meat inspection data by a developed and validated scheme and to analyze potential improvements in the reliability of the proposed system under industrialized slaughter conditions. RESULTS: A simplified evaluation scheme for surface-related lung lesions was developed based on morphometric evaluations of unaffected lungs with quantitative relationships of each lobe to the whole lung ("Rule of Tens"). Furthermore, a theoretical as well as a hands-on training program for meat inspectors was developed and applied. Based on 5,183 lungs, the authors established a baseline of the inter-rater reliability of current routine assessments of lung lesions as documented by meat inspectors compared with the assessments of an independent veterinarian using the developed simplified evaluation scheme. Most frequent inter-rater disagreements greater than 75% were found for moderate pneumonia. Sources of the deviations most frequently included misinterpretations of technical artifacts, which were erroneously assessed by the meat inspectors as pneumonic lung lesions. Results of the post-training investigation based on 4,646 lungs showed a significantly improved reliability of lung lesion evaluation and the inter-rater agreement increased in all respects. Especially the disagreement of recording moderate cases of pneumonia decreased in total to 15% deviations from reference. CONCLUSIONS: The presented simplified lung evaluation scheme showed its capability to standardize the evaluation of lung lesions according to administrative legislation under industrialial slaughter conditions. The reliability of official meat inspections can be significantly increased with the help of the presented scheme to assess surface-related lung lesions of slaughter pigs. Continuous standardization and optimization can be achieved by personalized training programs in the framework of quality assurance systems for meat inspectors.

Factors associated with regulatory action involving investigation of illnesses associated with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in products regulated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service.

We described characteristics of the Escherichia coli O157 and Escherichia coli non-O157 illness investigations conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) during the 5-year period from 2006 through 2010. We created a multivariable logistic regression model to determine characteristics of these investigations that were associated with FSIS regulatory action, which was defined as having occurred if a product recall occurred or if FSIS personnel performed an environmental health assessment (Food Safety Assessment) at the implicated establishment. During this period, FSIS took regulatory action in 38 of 88 (43%) investigations. Illness investigations in which FoodNet states were involved were more likely to result in regulatory action. Illness investigations in which state and local traceback, or FSIS traceback occurred were more likely to result in regulatory action. Reasons for lack of action included evidence of cross-contamination after the product left a regulated establishment, delayed notification, lack of epidemiological information, and insufficient product information.

Status quo and future research challenges on organic food quality determination with focus on laboratory methods.

Organic food quality determination needs multi-dimensional evaluation tools. The main focus is on the authentication as an analytical verification of the certification process. New fingerprinting approaches such as ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, direct analysis in real time-high-resolution mass spectrometry as well as crystallization with and without the presence of additives seem to be promising methods in terms of time of analysis and detecting organic system-related parameters. For further methodological development, a system approach is recommended, which also takes into account food structure aspects. Furthermore, the authentication of processed organic samples needs more consciousness, hence most of organic food is complex and processed.