Cystic fibrosis.

Cystic fibrosis is a monogenic disease considered to affect at least 100 000 people worldwide. Mutations in CFTR, the gene encoding the epithelial ion channel that normally transports chloride and bicarbonate, lead to impaired mucus hydration and clearance. Classical cystic fibrosis is thus characterised by chronic pulmonary infection and inflammation, pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, male infertility, and might include several comorbidities such as cystic fibrosis-related diabetes or cystic fibrosis liver disease. This autosomal recessive disease is diagnosed in many regions following newborn screening, whereas in other regions, diagnosis is based on a group of recognised multiorgan clinical manifestations, raised sweat chloride concentrations, or CFTR mutations. Disease that is less easily diagnosed, and in some cases affecting only one organ, can be seen in the context of gene variants leading to residual protein function. Management strategies, including augmenting mucociliary clearance and aggressively treating infections, have gradually improved life expectancy for people with cystic fibrosis. However, restoration of CFTR function via new small molecule modulator drugs is transforming the disease for many patients. Clinical trial pipelines are actively exploring many other approaches, which will be increasingly needed as survival improves and as the population of adults with cystic fibrosis increases. Here, we present the current understanding of CFTR mutations, protein function, and disease pathophysiology, consider strengths and limitations of current management strategies, and look to the future of multidisciplinary care for those with cystic fibrosis.

Pancreaticoduodenectomy for the treatment of pancreatic neoplasms in children: A Pediatric Surgical Oncology Research Collaborative study.

BACKGROUND: To better characterize short-term and long-term outcomes in children with pancreatic tumors treated with pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD). METHODS: Patients 21 years of age or younger who underwent PD at Pediatric Surgical Oncology Collaborative (PSORC) hospitals between 1990 and 2017 were identified. Demographic, clinical information, and outcomes (operative complications, long-term pancreatic function, recurrence, and survival) were collected. RESULTS: Sixty-five patients from 18 institutions with a median age of 13 years (4 months-22 years) and a median (IQR) follow-up of 2.8 (4.3) years were analyzed. Solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas (SPN) was the most common histology. Postoperative complications included pancreatic leak in 14% (n = 9), delayed gastric emptying in 9% (n = 6), marginal ulcer in one patient, and perioperative (30-day) death due to hepatic failure in one patient. Pancreatic insufficiency was observed in 32% (n = 21) of patients, with 23%, 3%, and 6% with exocrine, or endocrine insufficiencies, or both, respectively. Children with SPN and benign neoplasms all survived. Overall, there were 14 (22%) recurrences and 11 deaths (17%). Univariate analysis revealed non-SPN malignant tumor diagnosis, preoperative vascular involvement, intraoperative transfusion requirement, pathologic vascular invasion, positive margins, and need for neoadjuvant chemotherapy as risk factors for recurrence and poor survival. Multivariate analysis only revealed pathologic vascular invasion as a risk factor for recurrence and poor survival. CONCLUSION: This is the largest series of pediatric PD patients. PD is curative for SPN and benign neoplasms. Pancreatic insufficiency is the most common postoperative complication. Outcome is primarily associated with histology.

Increased Risk of Mortality Associated With Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency in Patients With Chronic Pancreatitis.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) is a common serious complication in chronic pancreatitis (CP); however, little is known about its effect on mortality in these patients. In this study, we assessed the mortality risk of PEI in patients with CP. STUDY: A prospective, longitudinal cohort study conducted in patients with CP under long-term follow-up. CP and PEI were diagnosed using pancreatic imaging and the C-labeled mixed triglyceride breath test, respectively. Multivariate analysis was performed to evaluate the impact of PEI and other clinical features on mortality risk. RESULTS: Patients (N=430) were analyzed (79.1% male; mean age, 47.8 y) during a mean follow-up of 8.6±4.6 years. PEI prevalence was 29.3% and mortality was 10.9%. Most frequent causes of death were cancer (40.4%), infection (21.3%), and acute cardiovascular event (14.9%). Multivariate analyses showed associations between increased mortality and presence of PEI [hazard ratio (HR), 2.59; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.42-4.71; P<0.003], liver cirrhosis (HR, 3.87; 95% CI, 1.95-7.69; P<0.001), age at diagnosis (HR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.03-1.09; P<0.001), toxic etiology of CP (HR, 3.11; 95% CI, 1.11-8.70; P<0.05) and respiratory comorbidity (HR, 2.19; 95% CI, 1.12-4.31; P<0.03). Nutritional markers were significantly lower in patients with PEI versus those without PEI (P<0.001) and in those who died versus survivors (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: PEI was a significant independent risk factor for mortality in patients with CP. These results support further research into the optimal treatment of PEI to reduce mortality in this population.

Cystic fibrosis.

Cystic fibrosis is a common life-limiting autosomal recessive genetic disorder, with highest prevalence in Europe, North America, and Australia. The disease is caused by mutation of a gene that encodes a chloride-conducting transmembrane channel called the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), which regulates anion transport and mucociliary clearance in the airways. Functional failure of CFTR results in mucus retention and chronic infection and subsequently in local airway inflammation that is harmful to the lungs. CFTR dysfunction mainly affects epithelial cells, although there is evidence of a role in immune cells. Cystic fibrosis affects several body systems, and morbidity and mortality is mostly caused by bronchiectasis, small airways obstruction, and progressive respiratory impairment. Important comorbidities caused by epithelial cell dysfunction occur in the pancreas (malabsorption), liver (biliary cirrhosis), sweat glands (heat shock), and vas deferens (infertility). The development and delivery of drugs that improve the clearance of mucus from the lungs and treat the consequent infection, in combination with correction of pancreatic insufficiency and undernutrition by multidisciplinary teams, have resulted in remarkable improvements in quality of life and clinical outcomes in patients with cystic fibrosis, with median life expectancy now older than 40 years. Innovative and transformational therapies that target the basic defect in cystic fibrosis have recently been developed and are effective in improving lung function and reducing pulmonary exacerbations. Further small molecule and gene-based therapies are being developed to restore CFTR function; these therapies promise to be disease modifying and to improve the lives of people with cystic fibrosis.

Pancreas exocrine replacement therapy is associated with increased survival following pancreatoduodenectomy for periampullary malignancy.

BACKGROUND: Although many patients undergoing pancreatoduodenectomy (PD) for cancer have pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) is not routinely used, and effects upon post-operative survival are unclear. METHODS: This review of patients undergoing PD for periampullary malignancy sought to test for an association between PERT and overall survival, with post-hoc subgroup analysis performed after stratifying patients by the year of surgery, pancreatic duct width and tumour type. RESULTS: Some 202/469 (43.1%) patients received PERT. After accounting for pathological variables and chemotherapy, PERT use was found to be independently associated with improved survival on multivariable analysis [HR 0.72 (95% CI: 0.52-0.99), p = 0.044] and on propensity matched analysis (p = 0.009). The effect of PERT upon improved survival was predominantly observed amongst patients with a dilated pancreatic duct (≥3 mm). DISCUSSION: PERT use was independently associated with improved survival following PD for cancer. The validity of this observation is supported by an effect largely confined to those patients with a dilated pancreatic duct. The nutritional status of patients undergoing PD for cancer needs further investigation and the effects of PERT require verification in further clinical studies.

PERFORMANCE OF TOTAL PANCREATECTOMY FOR PANCREATIC MALIGNANCIES.

Lethality, morbidity, survival indices and metabolic consequences of total pancreatec' tomy (TP), performed in patients, suffering pancreatic tumors, were analyzed. There were retrospectively analyzed 35 TP оperations, including 5­ urgent, 30 ­ elective, performed in a single center. General lethality have constituted 20% (7 patients died), and after elective ТP ­ 6.7% (2 died). Complications rate after elective TP have consti' tuted 40%; survival mediana­18 mo; indices of a 3­year survival ­ 40%, and a 5­ year one ­ 13.3%. Most frequently revealed metabolic changes after ТP ­ pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, pancreatogenic diabetes, changes in a lipid metabolism in hepatocytes. Our experience witnesses expediency of ТP introduction into surgical practice in specialized centers of Ukraine with results, which are matching a worldwide.

Early and late postoperative changes in the quality of life after pancreatic surgery.

PURPOSE: To compare health-related quality of life (QoL) before and after surgery for pancreatic disease. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of prospectively gathered data is presented. A total of 174 patients of 230 planned for pancreatic surgery between March and December 2009 at a German high-volume center completed the Short Form-36 (SF-36) Health Survey preoperatively, 133 of them at 3 months and 83 at 24 months after surgery. Data was analysed according to diagnosis and procedure, and compared to German population norms. RESULTS: QoL in the study group was worse than that of age-matched healthy population at all time points. It decreased continuously in the cancer group, decreased early and showed a trend toward recovery late in patients with benign tumors and chronic pancreatitis. Distal pancreatectomy was the best tolerated and total pancreatectomy the worst tolerated procedure. Older age and development of pancreatic insufficiency affected negatively QoL. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with pancreatic disease, diagnosis determined QoL preoperatively and late after surgery, while in the early postoperative period, type and extent of surgery was the leading factor. Total pancreatectomy had a profound negative effect on QoL and should be reserved for carefully selected patients only.

Classification of and risk factors for hematologic complications in a French national cohort of 102 patients with Shwachman-Diamond syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Patients with the Shwachman-Diamond syndrome often develop hematologic complications. No risk factors for these complications have so far been identified. The aim of this study was to classify the hematologic complications occurring in patients with Shwachman-Diamond syndrome and to investigate the risk factors for these complications. DESIGN AND METHODS: One hundred and two patients with Shwachman-Diamond syndrome, with a median follow-up of 11.6 years, were studied. Major hematologic complications were considered in the case of definitive severe cytopenia (i.e. anemia <7 g/dL or thrombocytopenia <20 × 10(9)/L), classified as malignant (myelodysplasia/leukemia) according to the 2008 World Health Organization classification or as non-malignant. RESULTS: Severe cytopenia was observed in 21 patients and classified as malignant severe cytopenia (n=9), non-malignant severe cytopenia (n=9) and malignant severe cytopenia preceded by non-malignant severe cytopenia (n=3). The 20-year cumulative risk of severe cytopenia was 24.3% (95% confidence interval: 15.3%-38.5%). Young age at first symptoms (<3 months) and low hematologic parameters both at diagnosis of the disease and during the follow-up were associated with severe hematologic complications (P<0.001). Fifteen novel SBDS mutations were identified. Genotype analysis showed no discernible prognostic value. CONCLUSIONS Patients with Shwachman-Diamond syndrome with very early symptoms or cytopenia at diagnosis (even mild anemia or thrombocytopenia) should be considered at a high risk of severe hematologic complications, malignant or non-malignant. Transient severe cytopenia or an indolent cytogenetic clone had no deleterious value.

Incidence, prevalence, etiology, and prognosis of first-time chronic pancreatitis in young patients: a nationwide cohort study.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Publications on etiology of chronic pancreatitis (CP) are infrequent. Etiologies today encompass genetic disorders. We wanted to describe etiologies of today and identify patients with genetic disorders like hereditary pancreatitis (HP), mutations in Serine Protease Inhibitor Kazal type1 (SPINK1), and the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator gene (CFTR) among patients formerly considered to have idiopathic CP. METHODS: Data on patients diagnosed with first-time CP < 30 years of age in Denmark identified in the Danish National Registry of Patients were retrieved. Patients previously considered to have idiopathic pancreatitis were offered genetic counseling and evaluation for HP, SPINK1, and CFTR mutations. RESULTS: In the period 1980-2004, 580 patients < 30 years of age presented with CP, the standardized prevalence ratio of CP increased from 11.7 per 100,000 person years in 1980-1984 to 17.0 per 100,000 in 2000-2004 (p < 0.001). The odds ratio (OR) having gallstone-related CP increased in the latter time period, especially in women, that of alcohol-induced CP decreased over time. OR having idiopathic CP increased in the latter period; 50% of patients with idiopathic pancreatitis accepted genetic reevaluation; 28 patients had a genetic mutation that totally or partly could explain their pancreatitis, nine of these had two, and 11 patients had HP. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of CP, especially in women, increased over time. Genetic causes that partly or totally could explain the CP were found in 54.90% (95% CI (40.45-68.62)) of those with idiopathic CP, as a minimum estimation 1.9% (95% CI (1.00-3.47)) of the total cohort had HP.

Contribution of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy to survival and quality of life in patients with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency.

The objective of this study was to analyze the current evidence for the use of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) in affecting survival and quality of life in patients with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI). Systematic searches of the literature were performed using the PubMed database. Articles were selected for inclusion if they reported findings from trials assessing the effects of PERT on quality of life, survival, malabsorption, growth parameters (such as height, body weight and body mass index), or gastrointestinal symptoms (such as abdominal pain, stool consistency and flatulence). PERT improved PEI-related malabsorption and weight maintenance in patients with cystic fibrosis, chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, and post-surgical states. In patients with chronic pancreatitis, PERT improved PEI-related symptoms and quality of life measures. Several small retrospective studies have also suggested that PERT may have a positive impact on survival, but long-term studies assessing this effect were not identified. PERT is effective for treating malnutrition and supporting weight maintenance, and it is associated with improved quality of life and possibly with enhanced survival in patients with PEI. However, there is evidence that not all patients with PEI receive adequate PERT. Future work should aim to assess the long-term effects of PERT on the survival of patients with PEI.

New treatments targeting the basic defects in cystic fibrosis.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a monogenic autosomal recessive disorder affecting around 75,000 individuals worldwide. It is a multi-system disease but the main morbidity and mortality is caused by chronic lung disease. Due to newborn screening, a multidisciplinary approach to care and intensive symptomatic treatment, the prognosis has dramatically improved over the last decades and there are currently more adults than children in many countries. However, CF is still a very severe disease with a current median age of life expectancy in the fourth decade of life. The disease is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene which encodes the CFTR protein, a protein kinase A-activated ATP-gated anion channel that regulates the transport of electrolytes such as chloride and bicarbonate. More than 2000 mutations have been reported, although not all of these have functional consequences. An enormous research effort and progress has been made in understanding the consequences of these mutations on the CFTR protein structure and function, and this has led to the approval of two new drug therapies that are able to bind to defective CFTR proteins and partially restore their function. They are mutation-specific therapies and available at present for specific mutations only. They are the first personalized medicine for CF with a possible disease-modifying effect. A pipeline of other compounds is under development with different mechanisms of action. It is foreseeable that new combinations of compounds will further improve the correction of CFTR function. Other strategies including premature stop codon read-through drugs, antisense oligonucleotides that correct the basic defect at the mRNA level or gene editing to restore the defective gene as well as gene therapy approaches are all in the pipeline. All these strategies are needed to develop disease-modifying therapies for all patients with CF.

Evidence-Based Surgical Treatments for Chronic Pancreatitis.

BACKGROUND: If conservative treatment of chronic pancreatitis is unsuccessful, surgery is an option. The choice of the most suitable surgical method can be difficult, as the indications, advantages, and disadvantages of the available methods have not yet been fully documented with scientific evidence. METHODS: In April 2015, we carried out a temporally unlimited systematic search for publications on surgery for chronic pancreatitis. The target parameters were morbidity, mortality, pain, endocrine and exocrine insuffi - ciency, weight gain, quality of life, length of hospital stay, and duration of urgery. Differences between surgical methods were studied with network meta-analysis, and duodenum-preserving operations were compared with partial duodenopancreatectomy with standard meta-analysis. RESULTS: Among the 326 articles initially identified, 8 randomized controlled trials on a total of 423 patients were included in the meta-analysis. The trials were markedly heterogeneous in some respects. There was no significant difference among surgical methods with respect to perioperative morbidity, pain, endocrine and exocrine insufficiency, or quality of life. Duodenumpreserving procedures, compared to duodenopancreatectomy, were associated with a long-term weight gain that was 3 kg higher (p <0.001; three trials), a mean length of hospital stay that was 3 days shorter (p = 0.009; six trials), and a duration of surgery that was 2 hours shorter (p <0.001; five trials). CONCLUSION: Duodenum-preserving surgery for chronic pancreatitis is superior to partial duodenopancreatectomy in multiple respects. Only limited recommendations can be given, however, on the basis of present data. The question of the best surgical method for the individual patient, in view of the clinical manifestations, anatomy, and diagnostic criteria, remains open.

Non-stented pancreaticogastrostomy for 111 patients undergoing pylorus-preserving pancreaticoduodenectomy.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The main purpose is to clarify the roles of pancreatic stenting and duct-to-mucosa anastomosis in prevention of pancreatic leakage and exocrine insufficiency in pylorus-preserving pancreaticoduodenectomy with non-stented pancreaticogastrostomy (non-stented PPPD-PG). METHODOLOGY: Prospectively-collected data from 111 patients with resectable periampullary lesions undergoing non-stented PPPD-PG between January 1997 and February 2003 were analyzed. Severity of postoperative steatorrhea was assessed. Surgical morbidity and mortality were evaluated. RESULTS: Complications occurred in 38 (34.2%) patients, leading to 2 (1.8%) deaths. However, neither of the deaths were related to operation. The most common complication was gastric atonia (14.4%). Pancreatic leakage occurred only in 1 (0.9%) patient. Overall, there was no steatorrhea in 92 (82.8%) patients after non-stented PPPD-PG, including 69 (62.2%) patients without replacement of pancreatic enzymes and 23 (20.7%) patients after replacement of pancreatic enzymes. Moderate steatorrhea occurred in 17 (15.3%) patients, and severe steatorrhea only in 1 (0.9%) patient. Steatorrhea was significantly correlated with the consistency of pancreatic parenchyma (P=0.037), instead of the diameter of pancreatic duct. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of low incidence of pancreatic leakage and steatorrhea in this non-stented PPPD-PG study imply that pancreatic stenting and duct-to-mucosa anastomosis may not be crucial in prevention of pancreatic leakage and exocrine insufficiency after reconstruction with pancreaticogastrostomy.

[The Whipple partial duodenopancreatectomy--its value in the treatment of chronic pancreatitis]. / Die partielle Duodenopankreatektomie nach Whipple--Stellenwert in der Behandlung der chronischen Pankreatitis.

The surgical treatment of chronic pancreatitis is indicated only in the complicated disease. The aim is mainly the treatment of pain, of mechanical obstacles and to exclude suspicion of cancer. Between October 1972 and January 1993 713 patients with chronic pancreatitis were treated at the Surgical University Hospital in Mannheim. In 40% of the patients conservative treatment was continued or intensified. Only in 123 patients a Whipple operation was performed. The leading symptom was pain in these patients. We saw postoperative surgical complications in 14 patients (11.4%). One of them died due to an operative leak (0.8%). Late results are based on a median follow up of 4.8 years and showed a complete or substantial pain relief in 94%. 66% went back to work. 77% gained weight with an average of more than 10 kg. The rate of postoperative endocrine insufficiency was 10% (total 40%), of exocrine insufficiency 26 (total 51%). Late mortality was 11% and mostly caused by continued alcoholic abuse. Based on these results, the Whipple operation seems to be the best standardized method for surgery of the complicated chronic pancreatitis within the head of the pancreas.