Magnetic resonance imaging of the normal dromedary camel tarsus.

BACKGROUND: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most versatile and informative imaging modality for the diagnosis of locomotor injuries in many animal species; however, veterinary literature describing the MRI of the dromedary camel tarsus is lacking. Our purpose was to describe and compare the MRI images of twelve cadaveric tarsi, examined in a 1.5 Tesla MRI scanner, with their corresponding anatomical gross sections. Turbo spin-echo (TSE) T1-weighted (T1), T2-weighted (T2), proton density-weighted (PD), and short tau inversion recovery (STIR) sequences were obtained in 3 planes. Tarsi were sectioned in sagittal, dorsal, and transverse planes. MRI images from different sequences and planes were described and compared with the anatomical sections. RESULTS: The soft and osseous tissues of the dromedary camel tarsus could be clearly defined on MRI images and corresponded extensively with the gross anatomic sections. The obtained MRI images enabled comprehensive assessment of the anatomic relationships among the osseous and soft tissues of the camel tarsus. Several structure were evaluated that cannot be imaged using radiography or ultrasonography, including the transverse inter-tarsal ligaments, the talocalcaneal ligament, the short dorsal ligament, branches of the short medial and lateral collateral ligaments and the tarsometatarsal ligaments. Specific anatomical features regarding the dromedary camel tarsus were identified, including the fused second and third tarsal bone, an additional bundle of the short medial collateral ligament connecting the talus and metatarsus and the medial and lateral limbs of the long plantar ligament. CONCLUSIONS: MRI images provided a thorough evaluation of the normal dromedary camel tarsus. Information provided in the current study is expected to serve as a basis for interpretation in clinical situations.

Making tiestalls more comfortable: IV. Increasing stall bed length and decreasing manger wall height to heal injuries and increase lying time in dairy cows housed in deep-bedded tiestalls.

Poor stall configuration can negatively affect cow welfare by impairing lying behavior and leading to injuries in dairy cows. The comfort of the stall bed in tiestalls is affected by the material components of the stall bed (stall base and bedding), but also by the amount of space provided. The amount of space cows are able to access lengthwise in a tiestall is determined by the stall bed length and the height of the manger wall (the front limit of the stall bed), which can limit access into the space available at the front of the stall. This project aimed to maximize cow comfort in deep-bedded tiestalls by investigating the combined effect of increased bed length and decreased manger wall height in a crossover experiment (2 periods with 1 wk habituation + 6 wk data collection). Two rows of 12 tiestalls were modified (n = 24 cows). Each row was a different length, short (178 cm; length commonly found in Quebec) or long (188 cm), and cows remained on the same row (same stall bed length) for the entire experiment. In each row, there were 6 stalls of each manger wall height treatment: high (20 cm, upper limit recommended) or low (5 cm). During period 2, cows switched manger wall height treatments. A 7.6-cm-deep straw bedding layer was added to all stalls by adding a bedding keeper to the ends of stalls. All initially injured locations healed over the 14-wk study, and 2 patterns of healing emerged. Improvement in hock injury (lateral tarsal and calcanei) was observed from wk 1 to 6 for all treatments. A plateau in injury severity score reduction was observed in period 2 for the hock (lateral, dorsal, and medial calcanei), anatomical knee, carpal joints (front knees), and proximal and medial neck, which was likely the result of the insensitivity of the injury scoring scheme rather than healing not occurring. Cows in long stalls were found to spend more time lying (14.1 vs. 13.3 h/d) and had longer lying bouts than cows in short stalls (74.1 vs. 52.9 min/bout). Manger wall height did not affect injury or lying time, but may affect how cows position themselves while lying. Higher lying times in our study were comparable to those reported in deep-bedded loose pens, indicating that cows with more bedding, especially those in long stalls, were more comfortable. Our results suggest that deep-bedded straw stalls with bedding keepers have the potential to be beneficial to cow comfort on tiestall farms.

Welfare of broiler chickens reared in two different industrial house types during the winter season in Southern Brazil.

1. The following trial compared broiler chicken welfare in closed-sided (CS) versus open-sided (OS) industrial house types during the winter season in the South of Brazil.2. Ten flocks in each house type were evaluated as follows: a) bird health: contact dermatitis on the breast and abdominal areas (CDE), bird soiling (BSO), footpad dermatitis (FPD), hock burn (HBU), lameness (LAM), fractures (FRA), bruising (BRU), scratches (SCR), dead on arrival (DOA), and diseases (DIS); b) house environmental measurements: relative humidity (RHU), temperature (TEM), air velocity (AVE), illuminance (ILL), ammonia concentration (NH3), and carbon dioxide concentration (CO2), and c) bird behaviour and affective states: bird behaviour (BBE), touch test (TTE), and qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA).3. Statistical analyses were based on regression models for CDE, BSO, FPD, HBU, LAM and generalised linear models for DOA, FRA, BRU, SCR, and DIS. The Mann-Whitney test was used for RHU, TEM, AVE, ILL, NH3, CO2, and the t-test for TTE and LMO, with a specific regression model for BBE data and Principal Component Analysis for QBA.4. According to odds ratio for worse scores for CS relative to OS, birds were less likely to have severe scores for CDE (P = 0.040 and P = 0.007), BSO (P = 0.031, P = 0.016, and P = 0.038), and HBU (P = 0.017), and had higher median values for AVE (2.3, 0.0-7.8 m s-1 vs. 0.0, 0.0-4.3 m s-1), lower NH3 concentration (9.0, 0.0-64.0 ppm vs. 12.0, 0.0-60.0 ppm) and TTE scores (98, 96-100 vs. 67, 25-100). Worse results were observed in CS houses for higher stocking density (13.8 ± 0.2 birds/m2 vs. 12.0 ± 0.2 birds/m2), RHU (74.5, 50.7-99.9% vs 72.3, 47.4-99.9%), and TEM (23.9, 14.6-29.2°C vs. 21.7, 12.9-30.1°C), lower ILL (16.0, 1.0-60.0 lx vs. 161.0, 8.0-2380.0 lx), less drinking (P = 0.007), more inactive behaviour (P < 0.001) and lower positive emotions, according to QBA (P = 0.028).5. In the studied region and season, CS houses seemed to offer fewer welfare problems in terms of the health indicators; however, OS houses showed fewer behavioural restrictions and higher positive emotional states.

Effect of rubber and concrete flooring on resting behavior, hock injuries, and milk production of primiparous Friesian crossbred dairy cows housed in a free-stall barn in Mid-Country, Sri Lanka.

The floor surface of the cubicle is a detrimental factor on cow comfort. The effects of two floor types, rubber and concrete, on dairy cow comfort and milk production were compared for a period of 13 weeks. Fourteen Friesian crossbred dairy cows with an average body weight of 425.67 ± 61.12 kg (mean ± SD), nose to tail body length of 2.07 ± 0.15 m, rump height of 1.29 ± 0.02 m, hook bone width of 0.48 ± 0.05 m, and body condition score (BCS) of 4.13 ± 0.44 were used, with seven cows per flooring treatment. The cows produced a mean of 15.93 ± 4.03 l/cow/day and a constant feeding plan was practiced. The swelling and wound severity of hocks diminished (P < 0.05) starting at the third and tenth weeks, respectively. Daily lying time/h (concrete: 9.67 ± 1.24, rubber: 10.60 ± 0.69, P = 0.046) and average duration of lying bouts/min increased (concrete: 58.16 ± 7.74, rubber: 65.66 ± 9.85, P = 0.050) starting from the twelfth week on rubber bedding. Prevalence of mastitis, lameness, and cow cleanliness remained unchanged on floor treatments. A progressive increase in daily milk production/l (concrete: 13.37 ± 1.46, rubber: 16.67 ± 2.24, P = 0.007) of cows in rubber bedding was observed at the fourth week of the experiment. Hence, the current study suggests that the use of softer bedding such as rubber mats could improve cow comfort and daily milk production of cows.

Increased ILC3s associated with higher levels of IL-1ß aggravates inflammatory arthritis in mice lacking phagocytic NADPH oxidase.

The role of redox regulation in immune-mediated arthritis has been previously described. However, the relationship between innate immune cells, including innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) and phagocyte-derived ROS, in this process remains unclear. Here, we characterize ILCs and measure the IL-1 family cytokines along with other cytokines relevant to ILC functions and development in serum-induced arthritic joints in wild type and phagocytic NADPH oxidase (NOX2)-deficient Ncf1-/- mice. We found more severe serum-induced joint inflammation and increased NCR+ ILC3s in inflamed joints of Ncf1-/- mice. Furthermore, in vitro stimulation with IL-1ß on Tbet+ ILC1s from joints facilitated their differentiation into ROR-γt+ ILC3s. Moreover, treatment with IL-1 antagonists effectively lowered the proportions of NCR+ ILC3s and IL-17A producing ILC3s in Ncf1-/- arthritic mice and ameliorated the joint inflammation. These results suggest that NOX2 is an essential regulator of ILC transdifferentiation and may mediate this process in a redox-dependent manner through IL-1ß production in the inflammatory joint. Our findings shed important light on the role of ILCs in the initiation and progression in tissue inflammation and delineate a novel innate immune cell-mediated pathogenic mechanism through which redox regulation may determine the direction of immune responses in joints.

Distinct Roles of Interferon Alpha and Beta in Controlling Chikungunya Virus Replication and Modulating Neutrophil-Mediated Inflammation.

Type I interferons (IFNs) are key mediators of the innate immune response. Although members of this family of cytokines signal through a single shared receptor, biochemical and functional variation exists in response to different IFN subtypes. While previous work has demonstrated that type I IFNs are essential to control infection by chikungunya virus (CHIKV), a globally emerging alphavirus, the contributions of individual IFN subtypes remain undefined. To address this question, we evaluated CHIKV pathogenesis in mice lacking IFN-ß (IFN-ß knockout [IFN-ß-KO] mice or mice treated with an IFN-ß-blocking antibody) or IFN-α (IFN regulatory factor 7 knockout [IRF7-KO] mice or mice treated with a pan-IFN-α-blocking antibody). Mice lacking either IFN-α or IFN-ß developed severe clinical disease following infection with CHIKV, with a marked increase in foot swelling compared to wild-type mice. Virological analysis revealed that mice lacking IFN-α sustained elevated infection in the infected ankle and in distant tissues. In contrast, IFN-ß-KO mice displayed minimal differences in viral burdens within the ankle or at distal sites and instead had an altered cellular immune response. Mice lacking IFN-ß had increased neutrophil infiltration into musculoskeletal tissues, and depletion of neutrophils in IFN-ß-KO but not IRF7-KO mice mitigated musculoskeletal disease caused by CHIKV. Our findings suggest disparate roles for the IFN subtypes during CHIKV infection, with IFN-α limiting early viral replication and dissemination and IFN-ß modulating neutrophil-mediated inflammation.IMPORTANCE Type I interferons (IFNs) possess a range of biological activity and protect against a number of viruses, including alphaviruses. Despite signaling through a shared receptor, there are established biochemical and functional differences among the IFN subtypes. The significance of our research is in demonstrating that IFN-α and IFN-ß both have protective roles during acute chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection but do so by distinct mechanisms. IFN-α limits CHIKV replication and dissemination, whereas IFN-ß protects from CHIKV pathogenesis by limiting inflammation mediated by neutrophils. Our findings support the premise that the IFN subtypes have distinct biological activities in the antiviral response.

Ankle loading ameliorates bone loss from breast cancer-associated bone metastasis.

Breast cancer is a serious health problem that preferentially metastasizes to bone. We have previously shown that bone loss can be prevented by mechanical loading, but the efficacy of ankle loading for metastasis-linked bone loss has not been investigated. This study showed that body weight was decreased after inoculation of tumor cells, but ankle loading restored a rapid weight loss. The nonloading group exhibited a decrease in bone volume/tissue volume (BV/TV), trabecular thickness, and trabecular number (all P < 0.01) as well as an increase in trabecular separation (P < 0.001). However, ankle loading improved those changes (all P < 0.05). Furthermore, although the nonloading group increased the tumor bearing as well as expression of IL-8 and matrix metalloproteinase 9, ankle loading decreased them. Induction of tumor in the bone elevated the osteoclast number (P < 0.05) as well as the levels of nuclear factor of activated T-cells cytoplasmic 1, NF-κB ligand, cathepsin K, and serum tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase type 5b, but ankle loading reduced osteoclast activity and those levels (all P < 0.05). Tumor bearing was positively correlated with the osteoclast number (P < 0.01) and negatively correlated with BV/TV and the osteoblast number (both P < 0.01). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that ankle loading suppresses tumor growth and osteolysis by inhibiting bone resorption and enhancing bone formation.-Yang, S., Liu, H., Zhu, L., Li, X., Liu, D., Song, X., Yokota, H., Zhang, P. Ankle loading ameliorates bone loss from breast cancer-associated bone metastasis.

Histologically validated scoring system for the assessment of hock burn in broilers.

The assessment of bird-based welfare indicators plays an important role in the evaluation of bird welfare. The aim of the study was to histologically validate a visual scoring system for hock burn in broilers and to detect threshold values of a visual score to define welfare-relevant alterations in terms of mild lesions or ulcers of the hock. We collected 200 hocks of 39- to 42-day-old Ross 308 broilers after the slaughter process. Each hock was scored visually ("macro scores" 0-4) and evaluated histologically ("micro scores" 0-3), with high scores representing more severe lesions. Although we found a tendency for higher micro scores with increasing macro scores, an exact allocation of macro to micro scores was not possible. For example, macro score 1 could represent micro scores 1, 2 and 3, whereas macro scores 3 and 4 always represented micro score 3 (ulcer). The conditional probability of certain micro scores for given macro scores was estimated using a multinomial logistic regression model. Ulcer showed the highest probability at macro score 1, whereas mild lesions were not found to have an estimated highest probability at any macro score. The depth of inflammation of hock burn lesions increased with increasing macro scores up to macro score 3 with an average depth of 1019 µm. Visually more severe and deeper lesions were also histologically rated with higher scores. Thus, considering limitations, the herein validated macroscopic assessment scheme for hock burn allows an estimation of histological alterations in hocks of broilers.RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Histological validation of a visual assessment scheme for hock burn in broilers.Tendency for higher micro scores with increasing macro scores.Estimation of histological score via macro score possible with limitations.Histological depth of inflammation increased with an increasing macro score.

Species coexistence and the dynamics of phenotypic evolution in adaptive radiation.

Interactions between species can promote evolutionary divergence of ecological traits and social signals, a process widely assumed to generate species differences in adaptive radiation. However, an alternative view is that lineages typically interact when relatively old, by which time selection for divergence is weak and potentially exceeded by convergent selection acting on traits mediating interspecific competition. Few studies have tested these contrasting predictions across large radiations, or by controlling for evolutionary time. Thus the role of species interactions in driving broad-scale patterns of trait divergence is unclear. Here we use phylogenetic estimates of divergence times to show that increased trait differences among coexisting lineages of ovenbirds (Furnariidae) are explained by their greater evolutionary age in relation to non-interacting lineages, and that--when these temporal biases are accounted for--the only significant effect of coexistence is convergence in a social signal (song). Our results conflict with the conventional view that coexistence promotes trait divergence among co-occurring organisms at macroevolutionary scales, and instead provide evidence that species interactions can drive phenotypic convergence across entire radiations, a pattern generally concealed by biases in age.

Hind limb conformation has limited influence on claw load distribution in dairy cows.

The high prevalence of claw lesions in dairy cows necessitates the investigation and hopefully elimination of factors involved in the etiology and pathogenesis of these disorders. Indirect genetic selection for specific conformation traits in feet and legs has been evaluated as a means of improving claw health but to date has not been successful. Claw disorders are commonly discussed in context with unequal claw load, and thus this study was designed to investigate the relationship between hind limb conformation and the load exerted on the respective claws. A total of 36 cows were divided into 3 groups of 12 based on the presence of parallel, straight, and cow-hocked hind limb conformation. The vertical ground reaction forces, claw prints, and mean and maximum pressures under the claws were measured in these cows before and after claw trimming. The principal characteristic of all 3 conformation traits was a significantly higher load on the lateral claws compared with the medial claws, which was least severe in cow-hocked cows. After functional foot trimming, the claws of the cows with straight conformation tended to have the most pronounced disproportion between the loads of the paired claws. Considering that a significantly higher load on the lateral claws occurred with all 3 conformations, the potential for improvement of claw health by means of indirect genetic selection for specific hind limb traits appears limited.

Short communication: Accuracy of estimation of lameness, injury, and cleanliness prevalence by dairy farmers and veterinarians.

Lameness, injuries, and cleanliness are considered important indicators of dairy cow welfare, milk production, and milk quality. Previous research has identified that farmers globally underestimate the prevalence of these cow-based measurements, but no information on the perceptions of veterinarians is available. Because veterinarians are often perceived as the main providers of health advice on farms, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the relationship between the true prevalence of lameness, injury (hock, knee, neck), and cleanliness (udder, legs, flanks), and the estimated prevalence of these issues by farmers and their herd veterinarians. A cross-sectional study was conducted between February 2016 and July 2017. First, the farm owner and the herd veterinarian were asked to estimate the prevalence of lameness, of neck, knee and hock injuries, and of udder, leg, and flank cleanliness on the farm. The research team then visited the farm and scored all lactating cows in the herd for each measurement. Linear regression models were used to assess the relationship between the prevalence estimated by the veterinarians and the farmers, of each cow-based measurement, and the true prevalence on the farm. The 93 herds enrolled had a median of 55 milking cows and were housed in tiestall (90%) and freestall (10%) barns. Ten herd veterinarians participated and were involved with 2 to 22 enrolled farms each. A wide variation was detected in the true prevalence of the different cow-based measurements among herds (lameness: range = 19-72%, median = 36%; neck injuries: range = 0-65%, median = 14%; knee injuries: range = 0-44%, median = 12%; hock injuries: range = 0-57%, median = 25%; dirty udder: range = 0-55%, median 13%; dirty legs: range = 0-91%, median = 18%; and dirty flanks: range = 0-82%, median = 20%). For both veterinarians and farmers, the perception of each cow-based measurement prevalence increased incrementally as the herd's true prevalence increased. Overall, farmers and veterinarians underestimated cow-based measurements. Farmers and veterinarians more accurately estimated lameness prevalence in herds with higher prevalence than in herds with low prevalence, suggesting a better awareness of the issue on farms with lameness problems. Injuries were less accurately estimated in herds with higher injury prevalence compared with herds with lower prevalence, suggesting an opportunity for better knowledge transfer in this area.

Incidence of udder cleft dermatitis (UCD) in dairy cows and risk factors for transitions to UCD.

Udder cleft dermatitis (UCD) is a common skin condition in Swedish dairy cows, affecting the anterior parts of the udder. The main objective of this study was to investigate incidence rate and duration of UCD in a 1-yr longitudinal study. Other objectives were to investigate risk factors for transitions from being healthy to having mild or severe UCD, and from having mild UCD to having severe UCD, and associations between UCD and clinical mastitis, somatic cell count (SCC) and hock lesions. Seven herds were included in the study and visited 9 times each at 6-wk intervals. At the visits, mild and severe UCD lesions, hock lesions, udder conformation traits, and hygiene scores were registered for each cow milked in the milking parlor. Information on breed, parity, days in milk (DIM), results from test milkings (milk production, SCC, and urea level), and veterinary treatments was also obtained. A UCD case was defined as one or several consecutive observations of UCD. The incidence and duration of UCD were described. Mixed-effect logistic regression models were used to analyze associations between potential risk factors and transitions to any type of UCD. Separate risk factor analyses were performed for transitions to mild and severe UCD. Associations with SCC, mastitis, and hock lesions were also analyzed with mixed-effect logistic regression models. The mean overall incidence of new UCD cases for all visits and herds was 0.5 cases per cow-year at risk. Risk factors associated with a higher risk of a transition to any type of UCD and mild UCD were breed (Swedish Red vs. Swedish Holstein), an indentation or fold at the fore udder attachment, and increasing DIM. In addition, a low milk urea level was associated with a lower risk of transition to any type of and mild UCD. Cows with previous mild UCD and high-yielding cows had increased risk for a transition to severe UCD. Cows that had an observed transition to severe UCD had an increased risk of veterinary-treated clinical mastitis within 6 wk after the UCD observation. No associations were found between UCD and SCC or hock lesions. The median observed duration of a UCD case was 12 wk, but most cases did not have an observed start or end during the study period. The observed duration of cases including severe UCD was longer than for cases involving only mild UCD. The high incidence and often long duration of UCD emphasize the need for preventive measures and treatment strategies.

Morphometric measurements to predict meniscal size in skeletally mature dogs for meniscal transplantation.

OBJECTIVE: To determine a relationship between morphometric measurements (MM) and meniscal dimensions (MD) in the dog. STUDY DESIGN: Cadaveric study. ANIMALS: Eighteen mixed-breed canine cadavers (22.35 ± 4.06 kg); 36 each of medial and lateral menisci. METHODS: The following MM were obtained in duplicate: height at scapula, withers, pelvis, rump, and greater trochanter; chest circumference; pelvic circumference; length from occiput to the base of the tail; hock to stifle length (HS); body weight; body condition score; and body fat percentage (BF%). Stifles were disarticulated, and digital photographs of in situ menisci were used to obtain meniscal measurements in duplicate. Morphometric parameters were compared with MD via Pearson correlation (r). A correlation of r ≥ 0.65 was considered strong. RESULTS: The strongest correlation was noted between HS and MD, with r = 0.85 for lateral meniscal width, r = 0.77 for medial meniscal length, and r = 0.76 for medial meniscal width. Lateral meniscal length had the strongest correlation with height at rump (HRu) (r = 0.73). Body weight correlated strongly with meniscal width and fairly with meniscal length. Body condition score and BF% correlated weakly with MD. CONCLUSION: Hock to stifle length was an easily obtainable variable and was proportional to MD. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Hock to stifle length may be considered by tissue banks and veterinary surgeons as a quick and cost effective screening tool for appropriate meniscal sizing in dogs.

An overview of dropped hock syndrome cases in New Zealand cattle.

Case history: Data were collected from 47 outbreaks of dropped hock syndrome (DHS) that were reported by veterinarians in New Zealand to the Ministry for Primary Industries between October 2012 and August 2017. There were 181 affected dairy cows from 44 farms. Of those with records, all 86 were aged between 2-3 years-old, and 4/94 (4%) were Friesian, 56/94 (60%) were Jersey and 33/94 (35%) were Jersey/Friesian cross. Of the 47 outbreaks, 45 (96%) occurred during winter and 37 (79%) in the South Island.Clinical findings: Of 151 cases with records, hindlimb weakness (117 cows), shortened gait (112 cows) and dropped hocks (106 cows) were most commonly reported, with 110 cases being bilaterally affected. The level of diagnostic work-up and the data recorded by veterinarians for each outbreak were highly variable. Creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase activities were reported for 22 cases and were within normal ranges for cows with mild disease but increased in cows with severe disease. Concentrations of Cu in serum and liver were below normal for 13/22 and 9/10 cows, respectively, from six outbreaks. Of 41 cows with records for clinical outcomes, 12 had complete resolution, 18 had partial resolution, and 11 had no resolution.Pathological findings: Post-mortem data were available from 26 cases. Muscle necrosis and haemorrhage of the origin of the gastrocnemius muscle were the key gross findings. In 14 cows with records for muscle histopathology, myodegeneration and recent haemorrhage were observed, and connective tissue pathology was reported to predate muscular pathology in seven cases.Diagnosis: DHS appeared to be a degenerative rather than inflammatory condition primarily affecting the connective tissue of the hind limb, especially at the dense collagen interfaces of the gastrocnemius. Although no evidence of neuropathy was found, this cannot definitively be ruled out as a potential cause.Clinical relevance: A more standardised and systematic approach to investigating cases and recording case data is required to make robust inferences about the aetiology, risk factors, and treatment interventions for DHS.

Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging study of a normal tarsal joint in a Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris).

BACKGROUND: In this research, using computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), we provide a thorough description of the standard appearance of a right tarsal joint in a Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris). CT scans were performed using a bone and soft tissue window setting, and three-dimensional surface reconstructed CT images were obtained. The MRI protocol was based on the use of Spin-echo (SE) T1-weighted and Gradient-echo (GE) STIR T2-weighted pulse sequences. Magnetic resonance (MR) images were taken in the transverse, sagittal and dorsal planes. We also performed anatomical dissections to facilitate the interpretation of the different structures of the tarsus joint and allow comparisons with CT and MRI images. RESULTS: The CT images allowed us to observe differences between the bones and soft tissues of the tarsal joint. When applying the bone window setting, the obtained footage showed the anatomy between the medulla and cortex. Additionally, the trabecular bone was delineated. By contrast, the soft tissue window allowed the main soft tissue structures of the tarsal joint, including ligaments, muscles and tendons, to be differentiated. Footage of the main anatomical structures of the standard tiger tarsus was obtained through MRI. The SE T1-weighted images showed the best evaluation of the cortical, subchondral and trabecular bone of the tibia, fibula, tarsus and metatarsus bones. Nonetheless, the GE STIR T2-weighted images allowed us to better visualize the articular cartilage and synovial fluid. In both MRI pulse sequences, the ligaments and tendons appeared with low signal intensity compared with muscles that were visible with intermediate signal intensity. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this CT and MRI study of the Bengal tiger tarsal joint provide some valuable anatomical information and may be useful for diagnosing disorders in this large non-domestic cat.

Do International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (CIGR) dimension recommendations for loose housing of cows improve animal welfare?

Design of cubicles and self-locking barriers can affect cow skin alterations, lameness, and dirtiness. We investigated whether the International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering (CIGR, Gainesville, FL)-recommended cattle housing design and dimensions actually improve cow welfare. We recorded individual cow body dimensions and assessed skin alterations, dirtiness, and lameness on 3,841 cows from 131 loose housing dairy farms (76 farms with cubicles and 55 straw-yard systems). We recorded the dimensions of cubicles (e.g., width, length, and so on) and of the self-locking barrier (e.g., top rail height and so on) for each farm. We then compared whether these dimensions would match with the individual cow body dimensions and whether compliance was associated with the occurrence of skin alterations, lameness, and dirtiness. Most cows (69.2%) had at least one skin alteration, on the tarsus (41.2%); neck, shoulder, or back (28.2%); hindquarters (22.0%); carpus (21.2%); and flank, side, or udder (11.6%). Lameness prevalence reached 17.9%. Most cows (83.1%) were scored dirty in at least one body region, mainly on the lower hind legs including hocks (81.4%), hindquarters (41.8%), and udder (21.0%). Cubicle recommendations were mostly met for cubicle resting length (75.9% of cubicles) and neck rail distance (NRD, 60.7%) but less so for overall cubicle length (CL, 38.8%), cubicle width (CW, 30.9%), neck rail height (NRH, 22.5%), head space (HS, 15.8%), partition zone for controlling lying position (ii zone, 15.7%), head and lunging space (HLS, 10.6%), partition head zone (i zone, 9.4%), and partition zone for pelvis freedom (iii zone, 6.0%). Compliance with design recommendations was associated with fewer skin alterations on neck (recommendation met for CW, CL, HS, and NRD and i zone), hindquarters (CW, CL, NRD), tarsus (CW, i and ii zones), and carpus (CW, HS, i and ii zones); less lameness (CW, NRH, i zone); and less dirtiness on the hindquarters (CW, HLS, NRD), lower hind legs (iii zone), and udder (CW, CL, HLS, NRD). Compliance with recommended i zone and ii zone design was associated with less injury and lameness but more dirtiness, whereas the opposite was true for the iii zone. Self-locking barrier recommendations were mostly met for bottom rail height (68.2%), separation wall width (SWW, 68.3%), and top rail height (TRH, 56.9%) and less often met for separation wall height (36.3%) and height difference between feeding floor and walking alley (26.5%). Risk for skin alterations on carpus and neck only decreased when SWW and TRH met recommendations. In conclusion, compliance with CIGR recommendations for some cubicle dimensions and neck rail position was associated with lower risk for cow welfare. However, the CIGR recommendations on cubicle partitions and self-locking barriers still leave welfare at risk and so need to be refined through further research with close observation of cow lying and feeding behavior.

Prevalence of hock, knee, and neck skin lesions and associated risk factors in dairy herds in the Maritime Provinces of Canada.

Skin lesions are commonly seen in dairy herds and have been associated with animal-, environmental-, and management factors. These lesions are not only a welfare concern, but they also affect profitability. Three areas on the cattle were examined for skin lesions: the hock, knee, and neck. Previous Canadian studies estimating the prevalence of lesions and the risk factors associated with them have not included the Maritime Provinces. In this study, 73 herds in the Maritime Provinces were chosen voluntarily to participate, with both tiestalls (n = 33) and freestalls (n = 40) represented. Within each herd, 67 to 90% of the lactating cows were selected and assessed for potential animal-, environmental-, and management-based risk factors. If producers were aware of the potential risk factors, this could help them reduce the prevalence in their herd. Leg lesions were scored on a 4-point scale (0-3) based on hair loss, swelling, and scabs, with a lesion defined as a score of 2 or 3 on at least 1 hock or knee. Necks were scored on a 3-point scale (0-2), with a lesion defined as score 2. For freestalls, the prevalence (95% confidence interval) of hock lesions was 39% (29-49%), knee lesions was 14% (11-18%), and neck lesions was 1% (<1-2%). Similarly, for tiestalls the prevalence (95% confidence interval) of hock lesions was 39% (33-46%), knee lesions was 17% (13-22%), and neck lesions was 5% (3-8%). Due to differences in management and methods of assessment between facility types, tiestalls and freestalls were analyzed separately. Due to dichotomization of cows as having a skin lesion or not, random-effects multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the risk factors for each lesion and facility type. Several environmental-based measurements, such as the stall base, type and dryness of bedding, and type of milking parlor, were associated with leg lesions. An environmental-based measurement that was associated with neck lesions was the design of the feed rail barrier in freestalls and the dimensions of the tie rail in tiestalls. Animal-based risk factors, such as stage of lactation, parity, and body condition, were also associated with all 3 types of lesions. This study showed that lesions to the hock, knee, and neck were common in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Although differences were seen between facility types, in general, the results suggest that improving stall design and management and feed bunk design would help producers reduce the number of skin lesions seen in dairy cattle.

Sampling strategies for assessing lameness, injuries, and body condition score on dairy farms.

Our objective was to evaluate how sampling strategies (i.e., how many cows to sample and which animals to include) used in 4 dairy cattle welfare assessment programs affect the classification of dairy farms relative to thresholds of acceptability for animal-based measures. We predicted that classification performance would improve when more cows were sampled and when selecting from all lactating cows versus when some pens were excluded. On 38 freestall farms, we assessed all 12,375 cows for lameness, injuries on the tarsal (hock) and carpal joints, and body condition score and calculated the farm-level prevalence for each measure. Based on approaches used in the industry, we evaluated 6 sampling strategies generated using formulas with precision (d) of 15, 10, or 5% applied to either a single high-producing pen or all lactating cows; an additional sample was included with d = 10% applied to the entire herd, selecting lactating cows in proportion to their representation in the herd. For each sampling strategy, cow records were selected randomly (in 10,000 replicates) to calculate prevalence. The strategy of assessing all cows in the high-producing pen was also compared. Farms were classified as meeting (below) or failing to meet (above) thresholds of ≤15% moderate lameness; ≤20% moderate carpal or hock injuries; <10, <5, and ≤1% severe lameness; or injuries on the carpus or hock; and <5, <3, <1, or 0% thin cows. For each measure and threshold, we calculated pooled percent agreement, kappa, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive value for each sampling strategy using true prevalence as the gold standard for herd classification. Across measures and thresholds, classification performance increased with the number of cows sampled [i.e., when narrower precision values (d = 5 vs. 10 vs. 15%) were used in the sample size calculation]. Because narrower precision values can dramatically increase sample size, assessment programs may need to consider both feasibility and the degree of misclassification they will accept. Applying the formula directly to lactating cows performed better than applying it to the entire herd and then selecting lactating cows in proportion to their representation in the herd. Farm classifications were similar whether cows in the hospital pen were included or excluded from the sample. Selecting all cows from the high-producing pen resulted in classifications similar to when including all lactating cows, suggesting that assessing cows from the high-producing pen may serve as an acceptable proxy for all lactating cows on the farm.

Injuries involving the central tarsal bone in nonracing dogs: Short-term outcomes and prognostic factors.

OBJECTIVE: To describe traumatic injuries involving the central tarsal bone (Tc) in nonracing dogs. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective multicenter study. ANIMALS: Thirty-two client-owned dogs. METHODS: Medical records from January 2010 to December 2016 were searched for dogs with Tc injury. Fracture classification, concurrent tarsal fractures, treatment, and perioperative management were tested for association with postoperative complications and short-term outcome. Outcome measures consisted of the latest lameness score reported in the record. RESULTS: The most common injuries consisted of type V fractures (22) and luxation of the Tc (8). Other injuries included 1 case each of type III and type IV fractures. Twenty-two concurrent fractures involved other tarsal bones. Complications were diagnosed in 18 (62.1%) dogs, consisting of 13 minor, 4 major, and 1 catastrophic complication. Lameness at final follow-up (median 7 weeks) in 28 dogs was scored as 0 of 5 in 14 (50.0%) dogs, 1 of 5 in 7 (25.0%) dogs, 2 of 5 in 4 (14.3%) dogs, 4 of 5 in 1 (3.5%) dogs, and 5 of 5 in 2 (7.1%) dogs. Major complications were associated with the presence of multiple tarsal fractures (risk ratio [RR] 3.94, 95% CI 0.80-19.37, P = .13), specifically when the calcaneus was involved (RR 5.78, 95% CI 1.53-21.88, P = .05). CONCLUSION: The most common diagnosis in this population of nonracing dogs consisted of type V Tc fractures. Fractures affecting other tarsal bones were common and were associated with a higher risk of major complications, especially those affecting the calcaneus. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Short-term outcomes seem favorable in nonracing dogs with isolated Tc fractures, but dogs with concomitant tarsal fractures are predisposed to major complications.

The Function of the Short Lateral Collateral Ligaments of the Canine Tarsus: A Cadaveric Study.

Information on the clinical behavior and treatment of cases with an isolated rupture of the short collateral ligaments of the canine tarsus is sparse and contradictory in the veterinary literature. Our objective was to evaluate the function of the short lateral collateral ligaments (SLCLs) of the tarsocrural joint in 90° flexion. Eight canine cadaveric limbs were tested for internal/external rotation and valgus/varus before and after transection of one or both SLCLs. In one group, the fibulocalcaneal ligament was transected first, followed by the fibulotalar. In the second group, the order of ligament transection was reversed. Angular changes between two k-wires were measured and compared. External rotation increased significantly after transection of one or both SLCLs (P = .009 and P < .0005), as did varus (P = .021 and P = .001). Lateral subluxation was only possible when both SLCLs were cut. Unlike the long lateral collateral ligament, which stabilizes against deviation toward medial, both SLCLs are major stabilizers against subluxation toward lateral. This important difference must be considered in clinical patients with isolated rupture of the SLCLs.