Nephroureteral stents: principles and techniques.

Nephroureteral stents including antegrade, retrograde, or internal (double-J) stents are routinely placed by interventional radiologists. The purpose of this review is to provide a detailed and comprehensive description of indications, contraindications, technique, and various technical challenges of these procedures. Also pre- and postprocedure management of patients will be discussed including routine follow-up and dealing with potential complications.