Thermocoagulation as a Surgical Approach for the Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Refractory Patients: Systematic Review

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), a disabling chronic neuropsychiatric disease, entails high economic costs to society and has high morbidity and mortality rates. The first-line treatments for OCD are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and cognitivebehavioral therapy. However, this disorder has the highest refractory index to noninvasive treatment. Alternatively, ablative thermocoagulation neurosurgical techniques have shown efficacy and few adverse effects. The present systematic review aimed to identify validated protocols to observe the effectiveness of ablative procedures in the treatment of severe and refractory OCD, as well as their possible adverse effects and benefits. This review supports the effectiveness of ablative methods by presenting them as a safe non-experimental therapeutic option for cases of highlyrefractory OCD. Additional relevant findings were the improvement in cognitive function, functional capacity, affective orientation, and quality of life, which contribute to the destigmatization of this surgical technique. Further controlled studies may lead to the individualization of recommendations of targets for ablative thermocoagulation.

Neurosurgery for Refractory Schizophrenia: A Systematic Literature Review

Schizophrenia is a chronic and disabling psychiatric disease that can be refractory to conventional treatment. The present study aims to gather information about the circuitry related to schizophrenia to describe possible surgical targets, and to establish whether psychosurgery can be a safe and effective treatment option for refractory schizophrenia. A systematic review of the literature was conducted and reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. An electronic search was performed in the Pubmed and BVSalud databases using medical subject headings (MeSH) combined with Boolean operators. Out of the 724 studies retrieved, 13 were included in the review. Regarding leucotomy without a stereotactic approach, we found side effects such as irritability, nervous excitement, cases of disinhibition, and compromised normal social control. In other stereotactic procedures, there was some improvement, mainly regarding aggressiveness and positive symptoms; an anterior capsulotomy had an efficacy rate of 74% according to the Clinical Global Impression (CGI) rating scales. The only deep brain stimulation (DBS) case report found in our study described a significant improvement in the positive and negative symptoms. The use of a stereotactic approach enables psychosurgery to be a safe and effective treatment option in cases of refractory schizophrenia, improving the quality of life and the symptoms. Cognitive and negative symptoms remain a challenge in the treatment of schizophrenia, revealing that more targets in the circuitrymust be surgically explored. Furthermore,more clinical trials are needed to compare these many surgical techniques and targets, using a standard evaluation parameter. The results show that DBS has a promising future in the treatment of refractory schizophrenia.

Efecto de la amigdalotomía e hipotalamotomía unilateral en pacientes con agresividad refractaria / Effect of tonsillotomy and unilateral hypothalamotomy in patients with refractory aggressiveness

Resumen Antecedentes: El tratamiento neuroquirúrgico, aunque polémico, se considera un recurso útil en el tratamiento de enfermedades psiquiátricas crónicas como la agresividad refractaria. Objetivo: Evaluar los resultados clínicos y los efectos colaterales de la hipotalamotomía posteromedial (HPM) asociada a amigdalotomía en pacientes con agresividad refractaria. Método: Se realizó un ensayo clínico en pacientes con agresividad crónica y refractaria a tratamiento farmacológico. Se les realizó amigdalotomía central asociada a HPM mediante termocoagulación por radiofrecuencia. El grado de agresividad se cuantificó mediante la escala global de agresividad de Yudofsky. Los cambios postoperatorios en la conducta agresiva continuaron siendo evaluados cada 6 meses durante al menos 36 meses. Resultados: Se observó un cambio estadísticamente significativo de la conducta agresiva, a lo largo de 36 meses de seguimiento. Se describen los efectos colaterales de la asociación de ambos procedimientos, siendo el de mayor frecuencia la somnolencia y algunos casos de reducción en la conducta sexual. Conclusión: Las lesiones unilaterales simétricas y simultáneas del núcleo central de la amígdala y del hipotálamo posteromedial contralaterales a la dominancia motora dan el mismo efecto clínico en la reducción de la agresividad patológica que las lesiones bilaterales.

Abstract Background: Neurosurgical treatment, although controversial, is considered a useful resource in the treatment of chronic psychiatric diseases such as refractory aggressiveness. Objective: To evaluate the clinical results and side effects of posteromedial hypothalamotomy associated with amygdalotomy in patients with refractory aggressiveness. Method: A clinical trial was conducted in patients with chronic aggressiveness and refractory to pharmacological treatment. A central amygdalotomy associated with posteromedial hypothalamotomy was performed using thermo-coagulation by radiofrequency. The degree of aggressiveness was quantified by the Yudofsky's global scale of aggression. Postoperative changes in aggressive behavior continued to be evaluated every 6 months for at least 36 months. Results: A statistically significant change in aggressive behavior was observed during 36 months of follow-up. The collateral effects of the association of both procedures are described, the most frequent being drowsiness and some cases of reduction in sexual behavior. Conclusion: Symmetric and simultaneous unilateral lesions of the central nucleus of the amygdala and the posteromedial hypothalamus contralateral to motor dominance give the same clinical effect in the reduction of the pathological aggression that the bilateral lesions.

Migration of Oxidized Cellulose to the Ventricle as a Complication of Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy: A Case Report

Endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) is an increasingly common neurosurgical procedure. Hemostatic agentes (porcine gelatin and oxidized cellulose) are normally placed to plug the cortical hole after ETV to avoid cerebral spinal fluid leakage, subdural hygroma, and hemorrhage. Here we report the case of a 6-year-old boy with hydrocephalus who underwent ETV and which oxidized cellulose was placed to plug the cortical hole.Magnetic resonance imaging of the head performed 3 months after the procedure showed the presence of oxidized cellulose in the ventricle. After an unsuccessful attempt to remove the cellulose, it was decided that the patient should be kept under observation. Twoyears later, the child is in good health and without any complaints. Hemostatic agents (especially oxidized cellulose) used on the cortical hole after ETV can migrate to the ventricle and compromise the procedure. Follow-up should be performedfor such patients, and the main focus should be on not causing further injury.

Egas Moniz: twice a double life / Egas Moniz: uma dupla vida dupla

Egas Moniz is credited with the discovery in 1927 of radioarteriography, for which he was, on three occasions, nominated for the Nobel Prize, and in all three denied the award. In 1949 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine for having designed leucotomy, a brain surgery to treat some forms of severe metal disorders. He was also an successful politician and accomplished statesman.

Egas Moniz foi o inventor da radioarteriografia, em 1927. Devido a essa descoberta, seu nome foi, por três vezes, indicado para receber o Prêmio Nobel de Medicina e, nas três, não foi considerado merecedor do prêmio. Em 1949 finalmente ele recebeu o Nobel por ter concebido a leucotomia, um procedimento cirúrgico para “tratar certos transtornos mentais graves”. Ele foi, ainda, um homem político e um estadista de sucesso.

Cirugía de los trastornos del comportamiento: el estado del arte / Surgery for Behavioral Disorders: The state of the art

INTRODUCCIÓN: la cirugía de los trastornos del comportamiento (CTC) se está convirtiendo en un tratamiento más común desde el desarrollo de la neuromodulación. Podemos dividir su historia en 3 etapas: la primera comienza en los inicios de la psicocirugía y termina con el desarrollo de las técnicas estereotácticas, cuando comienza la segunda etapa. Ésta se caracteriza por la realización de lesiones estereotácticas. Nos encontramos transitando la tercera etapa, que comienza cuando la estimulación cerebral profunda (ECP) empieza a ser usada en CTC. OBJETIVO: el propósito de este artículo es realizar una revisión no sistemática de la historia, indicaciones actuales, técnicas y blancos quirúrgicos de la CTC. RESULTADOS: a pesar de los errores graves cometidos en el pasado, hoy en día, la CTC está renaciendo. Los trastornos psiquiátricos que más frecuentemente se tratan con cirugía y los blancos estereotácticos preferidos para cada uno de ellos son: cápsula interna/estriado ventral para trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo, cíngulo subgenual para depresión y complejo centromediano/parafascicular del tálamo para síndrome de Tourette. CONCLUSIÓN: los resultados de la ECP en estos trastornos parecen alentadores. Sin embargo, se necesitan más estudios randomizados para establecer la efectividad de la CTC. Debe tenerse en cuenta que una apropiada selección de pacientes nos ayudará a realizar un procedimiento más seguro así como también a lograr mejores resultados quirúrgicos, conduciendo a la CTC a ser más aceptada por psiquiatras, pacientes y sus familias. Se necesita mayor investigación en vários temas como: fisiopatología de los trastornos del comportamiento, indicaciones de CTC y nuevos blancos quirúrgicos

BACKGROUND: Surgery for behavioral disorders (SBD) is becoming a more commonly-used treatment since the development of neuromodulation techniques. We can divide the history of SBD into 3 stages: the first stage spanned from the dawn of psychosurgery to the initial development of stereotactic techniques. The second stage was characterized by the recognition of stereotactic lesions. We are currently traveling through the third stage, which began when deep brain stimulation (DBS) started to be used for SBD.OBJECTIVE: This article reviews the history, current indications, techniques and surgical targets of SBD. RESULTS: Despite serious errors committed in the past, SBD is now re-emerging as an accepted therapeutic approach. The psychiatric disorders that are most frequently treated by surgery and the preferred stereotactic targets for treating them are: the internal capsule/ventral striatum for obsessive-compulsive disorder; the subgenual cingulate for treatment-resistant depression; and the centromedianum/parafascicularis complex of the thalamus for Tourette syndrome. CONCLUSIONS: Early results for DBS in these disorders are encouraging. However, more randomized trials are needed to establish the effectiveness of SBD. It must be taken into account that ensuring proper patient selection will enhance both procedural safety and effectiveness, leading to SBD being more accepted by psychiatrists, patients and their families. Further research is needed in several areas, like the physiopathology of behavioral disorders, indications for SBD, and new surgical targets

O conflito sexual infantil abordado de um ponto de vista psicanalítico por Egas oniz, o pai da psicocirurgia / Infantile sexual conflict approached from a psychoanalytic point of view by Egas moniz, the father of psychosurgery / Le conflit sexuel infantile étudié d'un point de vue psychanalytique par Egas Moniz, le père de la psychochirurgie / El conflicto sexual infantil desde el punto de vista psicoanalítico de Egas Moniz, padre de la psicocirurjía

Em sua conferência sobre O conflito sexual, proferida no Congresso Luso-Espanhol das Associações para o Progresso das Ciências e publicada em 1921, Egas Moniz aplica o método psicanalítico em dois casos clínicos, utilizando para isso o divã e fazendo uso da associação livre, da associação de ideias, assim como da análise dos sonhos. Esse neurocirurgião, principalmente reconhecido por seus estudos sobre a leucotomia pré-frontal, foi a primeira pessoa a se referir e a recorrer à psicanálise em Portugal. De fato, tal como Freud, Egas Moniz analisou dois casos da literatura apoiando-se no método analítico: o caso de Júlio Dinis em 1924 e o de Camilo em 1925. No entanto, sua contribuição à psicopatologia parece assombrada por seu trabalho sobre a leucotomia, que lhe valeu o Prêmio Nobel de Fisiologia em 1949.

During his conference on sexual conflict, given at the in Luso-Spanish Congress of Associations for Progress of Science, and published in 1921, Egas Moniz explained his use of the analytic method and device (the couch) to present the study of two clinical cases. He also discussed the principle of free association, association of ideas and the interpretation of dreams. Moniz was a neurosurgeon known primarily for his studies on prefrontal leucotomy, and was the first author to refer to and use psychoanalysis in Portugal. Like Freud, Moniz analyzed two cases in the literature in support of the analytical method: the case of Júlio Dinis in 1924 and that of Camilo in 1925. Nevertheless, his work on leucotomy, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology in 1949, appears to have cast a shadow on his contributions to psychopathology.

Dans sa conférence "Le conflit sexuel", tenue au Congrès Luso-Espagnol des Associations pour le Progrès des Sciences et publiée en 1921, Egas Moniz applique la méthode psychanalytique à deux cas cliniques en utilisant le dispositif du divan, le principe des associations libres, l'association d'idées ainsi que l'analyse des rêves. Ce neurochirurgien, reconnu en premier lieu pour ses études sur la leucotomie préfrontale, fut le premier auteur à faire référence et à recourir à la psychanalyse au Portugal. En effet, tout comme Freud, Egas Moniz analysa deux cas de la littérature à l'aide de la méthode analytique: le cas de Júlio Dinis en 1924 et celui de Camilo en 1925. Néanmoins, ses travaux sur la leucotomie, qui lui ont valu l'attribution du prix Nobel de physiologie en 1949, semblent avoir offusqué sa contribution à la psychopathologie.

En una conferencia sobre el conflicto sexual proferida en el Congreso Luso-español de las Asociaciones para el Progreso de las Ciencias y publicada en 1921, Egas Moniz aplica el método psicoanalítico en dos casos clínicos, utilizando para eso el diván, haciendo uso de la asociación libre de ideas, así como del análisis de sueños. Este neurocirurjano, reconocido principalmente por sus estudios sobre la leucotomia pre-frontal, fue la primera persona a referirse y recurrir al psicoanálisis en Portugal. De hecho, tal como Freíd, Egas Moniz analisó dos casos de la literatura apoyándose en el método psicoanalítico: el caso de Julio Dinis en 1924 y el de Camilo en 1925. Sin embargo, su contribución a la sicopatología parece ensombrecida por su trabajo sobre la leucotomia, lo que le valió el Premio Nobel de Fisiología en 1949.

Egas Moniz (1874-1955): cultura e ciência / Egas Moniz (1874-1955): culture and science

Por ocasião do sexagésimo aniversário da atribuição, em 1949, do prêmio Nobel da Medicina ou Fisiologia a Egas Moniz e a Walter Rudolf Hess, foram evocadas as circunstâncias que explicam a singular nobelização. Chama-se atenção para os traços biográficos de Egas Moniz, que são também os de muitos médicos da sua geração, asssim como dos pormenores que se prendem com o processo de nomeação e avaliação científica visando à candidatura ao prêmio Nobel. São também discutidos aspectos de ligação entre a cultura e a ciência, designadamente as controvérsias à volta do prêmio que lhe foi atribuído.

On the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of the award in 1949, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine granted to Egas Moniz and Walter Rudolf Hess, the circumstances that explain the unique Nobel award require elucidation. Attention is drawn to the biographical traits of Egas Moniz, which are also those of many doctors of his generation, as well as the details which relate to the process of nomination and scientific appraisal to be eligible for the Nobel Prize. Aspects of the link between culture and science are also discussed, including the controversies surrounding the award conferred upon him.

Psicocirurgia para tratamento de transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo / Psychosurgery for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder

O transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo (TOC) é uma patologia incapacitante tanto na esfera social como na ocupacional. Está associado a uma morbidade bastante alta quando comparado a outras condições psiquiátricas e estima-se atualmente uma prevalência de 2% a 3% na população. Alguns estudos sugerem uma provável relação com uma disfunção do córtex frontal e do cíngulo, envolvendo o circuito de Papez. Esse circuito parece mediar os sintomas ansiosos, visto que lesões cirúrgicas dessas áreas afetam a ansiedade geralmente associada ao TOC. A neurocirurgia ablativa para o tratamento de distúrbios psiquiátricos foi muito utilizada até o desenvolvimento de psicofármacos efetivos. Recentemente, com os avanços técnicos do procedimento cirúrgico, auxiliado pelo conhecimento neurofisiológico, a psicocirurgia tornou-se mais precisa e segura. Porém, sua indicação se restringe como uma alternativa ao tratamento de pacientes com TOC refratário à terapia comportamental e/ou medicamentosa.

The obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a both socially and occupationally incapacitating disease. It is associated with a quite high morbidity if compared to other psychiatric conditions and currently it is estimated a lifetime prevalence rate of 2% to 3%. Some studies suggest a probable relation with a dysfunction in the cingulate and the frontal cortex, involving the Papez circuit. Anxious symptoms seem to be mediated by that circuit, considering surgical lesions of these areas affect the anxiety usually associated with OCD. The ablative neurosurgery for the treatment of psychiatric disorders was widely used until the development of effective psychopharmacological medication. Recently, thanks to the technical advances of the surgical procedure, aided by the neurophysiological knowledge, the psychosurgery became more accurate and safer. Yet, its indication is restricted as an alternative treatment to refractory OCD patients.

Psicocirugía, estimulación cerebral profunda y cirugía para enfermedades psiquiátricas: El riesgo del neurodeterminismo / Psychosurgery, deep brain stimulation and surgery for psychiatric illnesses: the risk of neurodeterminism

La psicocirugía es, dentro de la neurocirugía, una forma realmente novedosa de enfrentar la patología psiquiátrica. Desde los procedimientos actualmente abandonados de Moniz, de principios del siglo XX, hasta nuestros días, no solo han avanzado las técnicas sino los conceptos filosóficos que sustentan la cirugía para la enfermedad psiquiátrica. Las actuales técnicas de estimulación cerebral profunda evitan los riesgos inherentes a las lesiones irreversibles de las antiguas técnicas ablativas, a la vez que las cirugías para patologías con componente cognitivo han dado paso a las cirugías para enfermedades con componente afectivo o motor. Sin embargo, a pesar de los avances técnicos, muchas preguntas siguen vigentes: ¿dónde reside la persona, en su cerebro o en todo su cuerpo? ¿Qué define a la persona humana, sus potencialidades cognitivas y racionales o la dualidad mente-espíritu? ¿Al morir el encéfalo, muere con él la persona? Todos estos interrogantes parten del hecho de que en nuestro mundo positivista y materialista se ha reducido la concepción de persona humana al funcionamiento encefálico. La psicocirugía, con los riesgos que tiene de alterar el comportamiento y la personalidad, nos cuestiona seriamente si, en el dilema mente-cerebro, el alma de la persona reside en la pineal, como lo planteara Descartes cinco siglos atrás.

A propósito de los ochenta años del descubrimiento de Egaz Moniz de la angiografía cerebral / apropos of the eighty years of the Egaz Moniz discovery of the cerebral angiography

Antonio Caetano de Abreu Freire Egas Moniz en 1963 publicó el procedimiento quirúrgico de la leucotomía profrontal como un tratamiento radical de las enfermedades mentales. El comité del Premio Nobel le concedió el reconocimiento en 1949 en Fisiología y Medicina. compartió el premio con Walter Rudolf Hess, neurólogo suizo, por sus aportes al conocimiento de la organización funcional del diencéfalo. Siendo la mayor contribución de Moniz el descubrimiento y desarrollo de la angiografía cerebral en 1927, hoy aún persisten las interrogantes de esta probable injusta decisión.

Tratamiento neuroquirúrgico de la agresividad irreductible: hipotalamotomía posteromedial estereotáxica / Stereotaxic posteromedial hypothalamotomy in the treatment of aggressive behaviour: a clinical case

Introducción: se describe el caso de un paciente de 30 años, portador de trastorno orgánico de la personalidad, que presentaba frecuentes accesos de agresividad patológica subtipo predatorio hacia otras personas. Estos episodios de descontrol fueron esporádicos en la infancia; a partir de los 15 años el síndrome fue empeorando a pesar de los tratamientos instituidos, siendo las crisis de agresividad imprevisibles cada vez más frecuentes y violentas. Se emplearon sucesivamente y en forma combinada terapéuticas farmacológicas (neurolépticos, antipsicóticos, benzodiacepinas, estabilizadores y betabloqueantes) a dosis plenas y en rango variable, electroconvulsoterapia y múltiples terapias de rehabilitación. Ante el fracaso terapéutico convencional se planteó como último recurso la neurocirugía. Procedimiento: la cirugía que se llevó a cabo fue una hipotalamotomía posteromedial bilateral estereotáxica por radiofrecuencia, bajo anestesia general, realizando la localización de los blancos a tratar con tomografía computada. No se observaron complicaciones posoperatorias. Resultados: en las semanas siguientes al posoperatorio el paciente se mantuvo en situación de mansedumbre, lo que permitió modificar el programa farmacológico, con suspensión de la megadosis de psicofármacos (haloperidol, olanzapina, lorazepam) y betabloqueantes (propranolol), y mantención del timorregulador anticomicial (valproato). En la evolución inmediata se reintegra precozmente y sin incidentes a la terapia grupal de rehabilitación y a actividades sociales con su familia. En la evolución diferida recupera paulatinamente rasgos personales y capacidades previas al comienzo de la refractariedad. La condición de mejoría clínica, respecto al objetivo del control de la agresividad patológica subtipo predatorio y la mejoría de la calidad de vida del paciente y su familia se mantienen durante el seguimiento de nueve meses, por lo que se decide publicar el reporte.

Capsulotomia ventro-capsular e ventro-estriatal por raios gama no transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo: avaliação inicial da eficácia e perfil de eventos adversos / Ventral capsular and ventral striatal gamma capsulotomy in obsessive-compulsive disorder: initial assessment of efficacy and profile of adverse events

Inúmeros estudos têm demonstrado que o Transtorno Obsessivo-Compulsivo (TOC) costuma cursar com uma taxa de resposta a tratamentos variando entre cerca de 60 a 80% dos casos, por meio do emprego de medicamentos inibidores de recaptação de serotonina, ou da terapia comportamental. Encontramos, no entanto, uma parcela de indivíduos portadores desta enfermidade os quais não respondem às opções terapêuticas clássicas, evoluindo com grave comprometimento psicossocial. Radiocirurgias estereotáxicas, como a capsulotomia anterior por raios gama, são uma opção terapêutica para estes pacientes. Recentemente, um aperfeiçoamento da capsulotomia anterior por raios gama foi desenvolvido na Universidade de Brown, denominado capsulotomia ventro-capsular e ventro-estriatal por raios gama, utilizando-se de lesões menores e tendo melhor perfil de eventos adversos. Faltam no entanto estudos detalhando a eficácia e o perfil de eventos adversos desta técnica. O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar se a capsulotomia ventro-capsular e ventro-estriatal por raios gama no TOC é eficaz quanto à redução de sintomas obsessivo-compulsivos e melhora clínica global e qual o perfil de eventos adversos, e de alterações neuropsicológicas e de personalidade do procedimento. Selecionaram-se 14 pacientes com TOC refratário, e que foram submetidos a esta técnica cirúrgica no país, cinco dos quais fizeram parte de um estudo piloto inicial. Os outros nove pacientes participaram de um ensaio clínico randomizado, duplo-cego, no qual um grupo se submeteu a radiocirurgia verdadeira (grupo ativo), enquanto o outro grupo recebeu uma falsa radiocirurgia (grupo placebo). Anteriormente ao procedimento, todos realizaram uma detalhada avaliação clínica/psiquiátrica, além de uma extensa bateria de instrumentos de diagnóstico psiquiátrico, gravidade e evolução do TOC, melhora clínica global, sintomas depressivos/ansiosos, e alterações neuropsicológicas e de personalidade...

Several studies have demonstrated that good treatment responses in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are often obtained in 60 to 80 % of patients, whether employing serotonin reuptake inhibitors or behavior therapy. However, a subgroup of these patients does not respond to the conventional therapeutic options. Severe psychosocial impairments are meanwhile observed. Stereotactic radiosurgeries, such as Gamma Knife anterior capsulotomy is a treatment option for these subjects. A smaller Gamma Knife capsulotomy technique, termed ventral capsular and ventral striatal gamma capsulotomy, has been recently developed at Brown University, with few adverse events. On the other hand, there is a lack of studies describing the efficacy and adverse events associated to this new technique. The aim of this study was to determine whether ventral capsular and ventral striatal gamma capsulotomy is efficacious in terms of obsessive-compulsive symptoms reductions and clinical global improvements, as well as to report the profile of adverse events, and neuropsychological and personality changes associated to this procedure. Fourteen refractory OCD patients were selected to be submitted to this new radiosurgical technique. Five subjects were operated in an open, pilot study. The other nine patients took part in a double-blind, randomized controlled trial, consisting of an active group (which received true radiosurgery) and a placebo group (with sham radiosurgery patients). All subjects were previously evaluated by a preliminary clinical/psychiatric interview, as well as by extensive specific instruments regarding psychiatric diagnosis, OCD evolution and severity, clinical global improvements, anxiety/depression symptoms, and neuropsychological and personality changes. All patients were offered periodical follow-up visits for a minimum of one year. Regarding the pilot study, two of five patients (40%) responded to treatment after one year of follow-up, while three of five (60%)...

Cirurgia psiquiátrica para agressividade / Psychosurgery for Aggressiveness

A agressividade humana é condição que apresenta grandeimpacto social. Seu tratamento permanece controverso. Váriasteorias sobre sua etiologia, substratos biológicos, genéticos esocioculturais foram propostas para justifi cá-la. Os autoresapresentam revisão sumária sobre bases anatômicas e neuroquímicas,aspectos psiquiátricos e ético-legais da agressividadesobre a seleção e indicações dos procedimentos terapêuticoscirúrgicos destinados a seu controle.