Identification of novel PIEZO1::CBFA2T3 and INO80C::SETBP1 fusion genes in an acute myeloid leukemia patient by RNA-seq.

BACKGROUND: Fusion genes are recurrent molecular aberrations in acute myeloid leukemia, with significant diagnostic and therapeutic value. The identification of novel fusion genes provides advanced biomarkers for diagnosis and facilitates the discovery of drug targets. METHODS: Bone marrow sample was extracted from an acute myeloid leukemia patient and RNA-sequencing was performed. Several bioinformatic methods, including differential analysis and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) pathway analyses were conducted based on the expression data. RESULTS: Two novel fusion genes, PIEZO1::CBFA2T3 and INO80C::SETBP1, were identified by RNA-seq. Differential analysis found that SETBP1 and CBFA2T3 were overexpressed, and GSEA analysis showed the activation of immune-related pathways. These findings indicate dysfunction of the fusion related- genes and possible pathogenic effect of the fusion genes. CONCLUSION: We reported a male AML patient with presence of PIEZO1::CBFA2T3 and INO80C::SETBP1 fusion genes.

GRAde: a long-read sequencing approach to efficiently identifying the CYP11B1/CYP11B2 chimeric form in patients with glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism.

BACKGROUND: Glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism (GRA) is a form of heritable hypertension caused by a chimeric fusion resulting from unequal crossing over between 11ß-hydroxylase (CYP11B1) and aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2), which are two genes with similar sequences. Different crossover patterns of the CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 chimeric genes may be associated with a variety of clinical presentations. It is therefore necessary to develop an efficient approach for identifying the differences between the hybrid genes of a patient with GRA. RESULTS: We developed a long-read analysis pipeline named GRAde (GRA deciphering), which utilizes the nonidentical bases in the CYP11B1 and CYP11B2 genomic sequences to identify and visualize the chimeric form. We sequenced the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products of the CYP11B1/CYP11B2 chimeric gene from 36 patients with GRA using the Nanopore MinION device and analyzed the sequences using GRAde. Crossover events were identified for 30 out of the 36 samples. The crossover sites appeared in the region exhibiting high sequence similarity between CYP11B1 and CYP11B2, and 53.3% of the cases were identified as having a gene conversion in intron 2. More importantly, there were six cases for whom the PCR products indicated a chimeric gene, but the GRAde results revealed no crossover pattern. The crossover regions were further verified by Sanger sequencing analysis. CONCLUSIONS: PCR-based target enrichment followed by long-read sequencing is an efficient and precise approach to dissecting complex genomic regions, such as those involved in GRA mutations, which could be directly applied to clinical diagnosis. The scripts of GRAde are available at https://github.com/hsu-binfo/GRAde .

The Fusion of CLEC12A and MIR223HG Arises from a trans-Splicing Event in Normal and Transformed Human Cells.

Chimeric RNAs are often associated with chromosomal rearrangements in cancer. In addition, they are also widely detected in normal tissues, contributing to transcriptomic complexity. Despite their prevalence, little is known about the characteristics and functions of chimeric RNAs. Here, we examine the genetic structure and biological roles of CLEC12A-MIR223HG, a novel chimeric transcript produced by the fusion of the cell surface receptor CLEC12A and the miRNA-223 host gene (MIR223HG), first identified in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) patients. Surprisingly, we observed that CLEC12A-MIR223HG is not just expressed in CML, but also in a variety of normal tissues and cell lines. CLEC12A-MIR223HG expression is elevated in pro-monocytic cells resistant to chemotherapy and during monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation. We observed that CLEC12A-MIR223HG is a product of trans-splicing rather than a chromosomal rearrangement and that transcriptional activation of CLEC12A with the CRISPR/Cas9 Synergistic Activation Mediator (SAM) system increases CLEC12A-MIR223HG expression. CLEC12A-MIR223HG translates into a chimeric protein, which largely resembles CLEC12A but harbours an altered C-type lectin domain altering key disulphide bonds. These alterations result in differences in post-translational modifications, cellular localization, and protein-protein interactions. Taken together, our observations support a possible involvement of CLEC12A-MIR223HG in the regulation of CLEC12A function. Our workflow also serves as a template to study other uncharacterized chimeric RNAs.

Plasticity of the lettuce infectious yellows virus minor coat protein (CPm) in mediating the foregut retention and transmission of a chimeric CPm mutant by whitefly vectors.

Transmission of the crinivirus, lettuce infectious yellows virus (LIYV), is determined by a minor coat protein (CPm)-mediated virion retention mechanism located in the foregut of its whitefly vector. To better understand the functions of LIYV CPm, chimeric CPm mutants engineered with different lengths of the LIYV CPm amino acid sequence and that of the crinivirus, lettuce chlorosis virus (LCV), were constructed based on bioinformatics and sequence alignment data. The 485 amino acid-long chimeric CPm of LIYV mutant, CPmP-1, contains 60 % (from position 3 to 294) of LCV CPm amino acids. The chimeric CPm of mutants CPmP-2, CPmP-3 and CPmP-4 contains 46 (position 3 to 208), 51 (position 3 to 238) and 41 % (position 261 to 442) of LCV CPm amino acids, respectively. All four mutants moved systemically, expressed the chimeric CPm and formed virus particles. However, following acquisition feeding of the virus preparations, only CPmP-1 was retained in the foreguts of a significant number of vectors and transmitted. In immuno-gold labelling transmission electron microscopy (IGL-TEM) analysis, CPmP-1 particles were distinctly labelled by antibodies directed against the LCV but not LIYV CPm. In contrast, CPmP-4 particles were not labelled by antibodies directed against the LCV or LIYV CPm, while CPmP-2 and -3 particles were weakly labelled by anti-LIYV CPm but not anti-LCV CPm antibodies. The unique antibody recognition and binding pattern of CPmP-1 was also displayed in the foreguts of whitefly vectors that fed on CPmP-1 virions. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the chimeric CPm of CPmP-1 is incorporated into functional virions, with the LCV CPm region being potentially exposed on the surface and accessible to anti-LCV CPm antibodies.

Large parental differences in chromatin organization in pancreatic beta cell line explaining diabetes susceptibility effects.

Previous GWAS studies identified non-coding loci with parent-of-origin-specific effects on Type 2 diabetes susceptibility. Here we report the molecular basis for one such locus near the KRTAP5-6 gene on chromosome 11. We determine the pattern of long-range contacts between an enhancer in this locus and the human INS promoter 460 kb away, in the human pancreatic ß-cell line, EndoC-ßH1. 3C long range contact experiments distinguish contacts on the two sister chromosomes. Coupling with allele-specific SNPs allows construction of maps revealing marked differences in organization of the two sister chromosomes in the entire region between KRTAP5-6 and INS. Further mapping distinguishes maternal and paternal alleles. This reveals a domain of parent-of-origin-specific chromatin structure extending in the telomeric direction from the INS locus. This suggests more generally that imprinted loci may extend their influence over gene expression beyond those loci through long range chromatin structure, resulting in parent-of-origin-biased expression patterns over great distances.

Systematic mining of fungal chimeric terpene synthases using an efficient precursor-providing yeast chassis.

Chimeric terpene synthases, which consist of C-terminal prenyltransferase (PT) and N-terminal class I terpene synthase (TS) domains (termed PTTSs here), is unique to fungi and produces structurally diverse di- and sesterterpenes. Prior to this study, 20 PTTSs had been functionally characterized. Our understanding of the origin and functional evolution of PTTS genes is limited. Our systematic search of sequenced fungal genomes among diverse taxa revealed that PTTS genes were restricted to Dikarya. Phylogenetic findings indicated different potential models of the origin and evolution of PTTS genes. One was that PTTS genes originated in the common Dikarya ancestor and then underwent frequent gene loss among various subsequent lineages. To understand their functional evolution, we selected 74 PTTS genes for biochemical characterization in an efficient precursor-providing yeast system employing chassis-based, robot-assisted, high-throughput automatic assembly. We found 34 PTTS genes that encoded active enzymes and collectively produced 24 di- and sesterterpenes. About half of these di- and sesterterpenes were also the products of the 20 known PTTSs, indicating functional conservation, whereas the PTTS products included the previously unknown sesterterpenes, sesterevisene (1), and sesterorbiculene (2), suggesting that a diversity of PTTS products awaits discovery. Separating functional PTTSs into two monophyletic groups implied that an early gene duplication event occurred during the evolution of the PTTS family followed by functional divergence with the characteristics of distinct cyclization mechanisms.

Several Fusion Genes Identified in a Spermatic Cord Leiomyoma With Rearrangements of Chromosome Arms 3p and 21q.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Benign smooth-muscle tumors, leiomyomas, occur in nearly every organ but are most common in the uterus. Whereas much is known about the genetics of uterine leiomyomas, little genetic information exists about leiomyomas of other organs. Here, we report and discuss the genetic findings in a para-testicular leiomyoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cytogenetic, array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) RNA sequencing, reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT- PCR), and Sanger sequencing analyses were performed on a leiomyoma of the spermatic cord removed from a 61-year-old man. RESULTS: The karyotype was 48~50,XY,add(3) (p21),+4,+7,+8,+9,add(21)(q22)[cp9]/46,XY[2]. aCGH confirmed the trisomies and also detected multiple gains and losses from 3p and 21q. RNA sequencing detected the chimeras ARHGEF3-CACNA2D2, TRAK1-TIMP4, ITPR1- DT-NR2C2, CLASP2-IL17RD, ZNF621-LARS2, CNTN4- RHOA, and NR2C2-CFAP410. All chimeras were confirmed by RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing. CONCLUSION: Our data, together with those previously published, indicate that a group of leiomyomas may be cytogenetically characterized by aberrations of 3p and the formation of fusion genes.

Comprehensive Detection of Pseudogenes Transcribed by Readthrough.

Transcription termination is a critical stage for the production of legitimate mRNAs, and consequently functional proteins. However, the transcription machinery can ignore the stop signs and continue elongating beyond gene boundaries, invading downstream neighboring genes. Such phenomenon, designated transcription readthrough, can trigger the expression of pseudogenes usually silenced or lacking the proper regulatory signals. Due to the sequence similarity to parental genes, readthrough transcribed pseudogenes can regulate relevant protein-coding genes and impact biological functions. Here, we describe a computational pipeline that employs already existent bioinformatic tools to detect readthrough transcribed pseudogenes from expression profiles. We also unveil that combining strand-specific transcriptome data and epigenetic profiles can enhance and corroborate the results. By applying such approach to renal cancer biopsies, we show that pseudogenes can be readthrough transcribed as part of unspliced transcripts or processed RNA chimeras. Overall, our pipeline allows us to scrutinize transcriptome profiles to detect a diversity of readthrough events leading to expression of pseudogenes.

Aberrant splicing in neuroblastoma generates RNA-fusion transcripts and provides vulnerability to spliceosome inhibitors.

The paucity of recurrent mutations has hampered efforts to understand and treat neuroblastoma. Alternative splicing and splicing-dependent RNA-fusions represent mechanisms able to increase the gene product repertoire but their role in neuroblastoma remains largely unexplored. Here we investigate the presence and possible roles of aberrant splicing and splicing-dependent RNA-fusion transcripts in neuroblastoma. In addition, we attend to establish whether the spliceosome can be targeted to treat neuroblastoma. Through analysis of RNA-sequenced neuroblastoma we show that elevated expression of splicing factors is a strong predictor of poor clinical outcome. Furthermore, we identified >900 primarily intrachromosomal fusions containing canonical splicing sites. Fusions included transcripts from well-known oncogenes, were enriched for proximal genes and in chromosomal regions commonly gained or lost in neuroblastoma. As a proof-of-principle that these fusions can generate altered gene products, we characterized a ZNF451-BAG2 fusion, producing a truncated BAG2-protein which inhibited retinoic acid induced differentiation. Spliceosome inhibition impeded neuroblastoma fusion expression, induced apoptosis and inhibited xenograft tumor growth. Our findings elucidate a splicing-dependent mechanism generating altered gene products in neuroblastoma and show that the spliceosome is a potential target for clinical intervention.

Discovery of a Napabucasin PROTAC as an Effective Degrader of the E3 Ligase ZFP91.

Napabucasin, undergoing multiple clinical trials, was reported to inhibit the signal transducer and transcription factor 3 (STAT3). To better elucidate its mechanism of action, we designed a napabucasin-based proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC), XD2-149 that resulted in inhibition of STAT3 signaling in pancreatic cancer cell lines without inducing proteasome-dependent degradation of STAT3. Proteomics analysis of XD2-149 revealed the downregulation of the E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase ZFP91. XD2-149 degrades ZFP91 with DC50 values in the nanomolar range. The cytotoxicity of XD2-149 was significantly, but not fully, reduced with ZFP91 knockdown providing evidence for its multi-targeted mechanism of action. The NQO1 inhibitor, dicoumarol, rescued the cytotoxicity of XD2-149 but not ZFP91 degradation, suggesting that the NQO1-induced cell death is independent of ZFP91. ZFP91 plays a role in tumorigenesis and is involved in multiple oncogenic pathways including NF-κB and HIF-1α.

Role of chimeric transcript formation in the pathogenesis of birth defects.

Chimeric transcripts are formed by chromosomal aberrations. Little is known about the role of chimeric transcripts in the pathogenesis of birth defects. We reanalyzed RNA-seq data in alignment map files from the peripheral blood of 56 patients in whom the diagnoses could not be confirmed by standard exome analysis and transcriptome analysis to screen for chimeric transcripts using a dedicated software, ChimPipe. Chimeric analysis led to a diagnosis in two of the 56 patients: (a) the first patient had a chimeric transcript spanning the causative gene ZEB2 and the GTDC1 gene in its neighboring locus. RNA-seq revealed reads spanning exon 5 of ZEB2 and exon 7 of GTDC1. Whole genome sequencing revealed a 436-kb deletion spanning intron 4 of ZEB2 and intron 7 of GTDC1 and the diagnosis of Mowat-Wilson syndrome was made. (b) The second patient had a chimeric transcript spanning the causative gene KCNK9 and the TRAPPC9 gene in its neighboring locus. RNA-seq revealed reads spanning exon 21 of TRAPPC9 and exon 1 of KCNK9. Whole genome sequencing revealed a 186-kb deletion spanning intron 20 of TRAPPC9 and intron 1 of KCNK9 in this patient. KCNK9 gene is a maternally expressed imprinted gene. The diagnosis of Birk-Barel syndrome was made. Thus, both patients had chimeric transcripts that were directly involved in the pathogenesis of the birth defects. The approach reported herein, of detecting chimeric transcripts from RNA-seq data, is unique in that the approach does not rely on any prior information on the presence of genomic deletion.

The Cell-Autonomous Clock of VIP Receptor VPAC2 Cells Regulates Period and Coherence of Circadian Behavior.

Circadian (approximately daily) rhythms pervade mammalian behavior. They are generated by cell-autonomous, transcriptional/translational feedback loops (TTFLs), active in all tissues. This distributed clock network is coordinated by the principal circadian pacemaker, the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Its robust and accurate time-keeping arises from circuit-level interactions that bind its individual cellular clocks into a coherent time-keeper. Cells that express the neuropeptide vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) mediate retinal entrainment of the SCN; and in the absence of VIP, or its cognate receptor VPAC2, circadian behavior is compromised because SCN cells cannot synchronize. The contributions to pace-making of other cell types, including VPAC2-expressing target cells of VIP, are, however, not understood. We therefore used intersectional genetics to manipulate the cell-autonomous TTFLs of VPAC2-expressing cells. Measuring circadian behavioral and SCN rhythmicity in these temporally chimeric male mice thus enabled us to determine the contribution of VPAC2-expressing cells (∼35% of SCN cells) to SCN time-keeping. Lengthening of the intrinsic TTFL period of VPAC2 cells by deletion of the CK1εTau allele concomitantly lengthened the period of circadian behavioral rhythms. It also increased the variability of the circadian period of bioluminescent TTFL rhythms in SCN slices recorded ex vivo Abrogation of circadian competence in VPAC2 cells by deletion of Bmal1 severely disrupted circadian behavioral rhythms and compromised TTFL time-keeping in the corresponding SCN slices. Thus, VPAC2-expressing cells are a distinct, functionally powerful subset of the SCN circuit, contributing to computation of ensemble period and maintenance of circadian robustness. These findings extend our understanding of SCN circuit topology.

Point mutation in the stop codon of MAV_RS14660 increases the growth rate of Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis.

Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis (MAH) is a pathogen that causes various non-tuberculous mycobacterial diseases in humans and animals worldwide. Among the genus, MAH is characterized by relatively slow growth. Here, we isolated a rapidly growing variant of the MAH 104 strain. The variant strain (named N104) exhibited an enhanced growth rate and higher motility compared to the parent MAH 104 strain (P104). Whole-genome sequencing analysis of N104 revealed the loss of the stop codon of MAV_RS14660 due to a single nucleotide replacement, resulting in the substitution of the codon for tryptophan. Notably, exclusion of the stop codon ligated the open reading frames and caused the fusion of two adjacent proteins. A revertant parent strain, in which a mutation was introduced to restore the stop codon, revealed that elimination of the stop codon in MAV_RS14660 was responsible for the N104 phenotype. Furthermore, we analysed the phenotypes of the parent and mutated strains by determining the functions of the MAV_RS14660 and MAV_RS14655 coding regions flanking the stop codon. The mutant strains, expected to express a fusion protein, exhibited increased resistance to antimicrobial drugs and exogenous copper toxicity compared to that of the parent strains. These findings suggest that the fusion of the MAV_RS14660- and MAV_RS14655-encoding regions in the mutant N104 strain could be related to the modified functions of these intrinsic proteins.

TARPs Modulate Receptor-Mediated Paired-Pulse Depression and Recovery from Desensitization.

Transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins (TARPs) are auxiliary AMPA receptor subunits that play a key role in receptor trafficking and in modulating receptor gating. The ability of TARPs to slow both deactivation and desensitization is isoform specific. However, TARP isoform-specific modulation of receptor properties remains uncharacterized. Here, we compare the isoform-specific effects of γ-2, γ-3, γ-4, and γ-8 TARPs on recovery from desensitization and responses to pairs of brief applications of glutamate. All four isoforms were able to reduce receptor-mediated paired-pulse depression and significantly speed recovery from desensitization in an isoform-specific manner. In the presence of TARPs, recovery time courses were observed to contain two components, fast and slow. The proportion of fast and slow components was determined by the TARP isoform. The time constant of recovery was also altered by the duration of glutamate application. When studies with TARP chimeras were performed, TARP extracellular loops were found to play a vital role in TARP modulation of recovery. Thus, isoform-specific differences in TARP modulation of recovery from desensitization influence receptor responses to repeated brief applications of glutamate, and these differences may impact frequency-dependent synaptic signaling in the mammalian central nervous system.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT AMPA receptors are major determinants of excitatory synaptic strength. The channel kinetics of AMPA receptors contribute to the kinetics of synaptic transmission. Transmembrane AMPA receptor regulatory proteins (TARPs) auxiliary subunits can modulate the decay kinetics of AMPA receptors. However, whether TARP isoforms specifically modulate receptor recovery is unclear. Here, we investigated the recovery kinetics of AMPA receptors by expressing various TARP isoforms and chimeras. We observed that the TARP isoforms and duration of glutamate application uniquely modulate time constants and the proportion of fast and slow components through a previously unidentified TARP domain. Given the impact of recovery kinetics on receptor responses to repetitive stimulation such as synaptic transmission, this work will be of great interest in the field of excitatory synaptic transmission research.

Activated HoxB4-induced hematopoietic stem cells from murine pluripotent stem cells via long-term programming.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are multipotent cells that form the entire blood system and have the potential to cure several pathogenic conditions directly or indirectly arising from defects within the HSC compartment. Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) or induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) can give rise to all embryonic cell types; however, efficient in vitro differentiation of HSCs from PSCs remains challenging. HoxB4 is a key regulator orchestrating the differentiation of PSCs into all cells types across the mesodermal lineage, including HSCs. Moreover, the ectopic expression of HoxB4 enhances the in vitro generation and expansion of HSCs. However, several aspects of HoxB4 biology including its regulatory functions are not fully understood. Here, we describe the role of HoxB4 in indirectly inhibiting the emergence of mature CD45+ HSCs from iPSCs in vitro. Forced activation of HoxB4 permitted long-term maintenance of functional hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs), which efficiently reconstituted hematopoiesis upon transplantation. Our method enables an easy and scalable in vitro platform for the generation of HSCs from iPSCs, which will ultimately lead to a better understanding of HSC biology and facilitate preparation of the roadma for producing an unrestricted supply of HSCs for several curative therapies.

Broccoli: Combining Phylogenetic and Network Analyses for Orthology Assignment.

Orthology assignment is a key step of comparative genomic studies, for which many bioinformatic tools have been developed. However, all gene clustering pipelines are based on the analysis of protein distances, which are subject to many artifacts. In this article, we introduce Broccoli, a user-friendly pipeline designed to infer, with high precision, orthologous groups, and pairs of proteins using a phylogeny-based approach. Briefly, Broccoli performs ultrafast phylogenetic analyses on most proteins and builds a network of orthologous relationships. Orthologous groups are then identified from the network using a parameter-free machine learning algorithm. Broccoli is also able to detect chimeric proteins resulting from gene-fusion events and to assign these proteins to the corresponding orthologous groups. Tested on two benchmark data sets, Broccoli outperforms current orthology pipelines. In addition, Broccoli is scalable, with runtimes similar to those of recent distance-based pipelines. Given its high level of performance and efficiency, this new pipeline represents a suitable choice for comparative genomic studies. Broccoli is freely available at https://github.com/rderelle/Broccoli.

Cell Fusion Induced by a Fusion-Active Form of Human Cytomegalovirus Glycoprotein B (gB) Is Inhibited by Antibodies Directed at Antigenic Domain 5 in the Ectodomain of gB.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a ubiquitous pathogen that can cause severe clinical disease in allograft recipients and infants infected in utero Virus-neutralizing antibodies defined in vitro have been proposed to confer protection against HCMV infection, and the virion envelope glycoprotein B (gB) serves as a major target of neutralizing antibodies. The viral fusion protein gB is nonfusogenic on its own and requires glycoproteins H (gH) and L (gL) for membrane fusion, which is in contrast to requirements of related class III fusion proteins, including vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein G (VSV-G) or baculovirus gp64. To explore requirements for gB's fusion activity, we generated a set of chimeras composed of gB and VSV-G or gp64, respectively. These gB chimeras were intrinsically fusion active and led to the formation of multinucleated cell syncytia when expressed in the absence of other viral proteins. Utilizing a panel of virus-neutralizing gB-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), we could demonstrate that syncytium formation of the fusogenic gB/VSV-G chimera can be significantly inhibited by only a subset of neutralizing MAbs which target antigenic domain 5 (AD-5) of gB. This observation argues for differential modes of action of neutralizing anti-gB MAbs and suggests that blocking the membrane fusion function of gB could be one mechanism of antibody-mediated virus neutralization. In addition, our data have important implications for the further understanding of the conformation of gB that promotes membrane fusion as well as the identification of structures in AD-5 that could be targeted by antibodies to block this early step in HCMV infection.IMPORTANCE HCMV is a major global health concern, and antiviral chemotherapy remains problematic due to toxicity of available compounds and the emergence of drug-resistant viruses. Thus, an HCMV vaccine represents a priority for both governmental and pharmaceutical research programs. A major obstacle for the development of a vaccine is a lack of knowledge of the nature and specificities of protective immune responses that should be induced by such a vaccine. Glycoprotein B of HCMV is an important target for neutralizing antibodies and, hence, is often included as a component of intervention strategies. By generation of fusion-active gB chimeras, we were able to identify target structures of neutralizing antibodies that potently block gB-induced membrane fusion. This experimental system provides an approach to screen for antibodies that interfere with gB's fusogenic activity. In summary, our data will likely contribute to both rational vaccine design and the development of antibody-based therapies against HCMV.

Hybrid Gene Origination Creates Human-Virus Chimeric Proteins during Infection.

RNA viruses are a major human health threat. The life cycles of many highly pathogenic RNA viruses like influenza A virus (IAV) and Lassa virus depends on host mRNA, because viral polymerases cleave 5'-m7G-capped host transcripts to prime viral mRNA synthesis ("cap-snatching"). We hypothesized that start codons within cap-snatched host transcripts could generate chimeric human-viral mRNAs with coding potential. We report the existence of this mechanism of gene origination, which we named "start-snatching." Depending on the reading frame, start-snatching allows the translation of host and viral "untranslated regions" (UTRs) to create N-terminally extended viral proteins or entirely novel polypeptides by genetic overprinting. We show that both types of chimeric proteins are made in IAV-infected cells, generate T cell responses, and contribute to virulence. Our results indicate that during infection with IAV, and likely a multitude of other human, animal and plant viruses, a host-dependent mechanism allows the genesis of hybrid genes.

CCL20 is a novel ligand for the scavenging atypical chemokine receptor 4.

The chemokine CCL20 is broadly produced by endothelial cells in the liver, the lung, in lymph nodes and mucosal lymphoid tissues, and recruits CCR6 expressing leukocytes, particularly dendritic cells, mature B cells, and subpopulations of T cells. How CCL20 is systemically scavenged is currently unknown. Here, we identify that fluorescently labeled human and mouse CCL20 are efficiently taken-up by the atypical chemokine receptor ACKR4. CCL20 shares ACKR4 with the homeostatic chemokines CCL19, CCL21, and CCL25, although with a lower affinity. We demonstrate that all 4 human chemokines recruit ß-arrestin1 and ß-arrestin2 to human ACKR4. Similarly, mouse CCL19, CCL21, and CCL25 equally activate the human receptor. Interestingly, at the same chemokine concentration, mouse CCL20 did not recruit ß-arrestins to human ACKR4. Further cross-species analysis suggests that human ACKR4 preferentially takes-up human CCL20, whereas mouse ACKR4 similarly internalizes mouse and human CCL20. Furthermore, we engineered a fluorescently labeled chimeric chemokine consisting of the N-terminus of mouse CCL25 and the body of mouse CCL19, termed CCL25_19, which interacts with and is taken-up by human and mouse ACKR4.

Chimeric Peptide Species Contribute to Divergent Dipeptide Repeat Pathology in c9ALS/FTD and SCA36.

GGGGCC hexanucleotide repeat expansions (HREs) in C9orf72 cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and lead to the production of aggregating dipeptide repeat proteins (DPRs) via repeat associated non-AUG (RAN) translation. Here, we show the similar intronic GGCCTG HREs that causes spinocerebellar ataxia type 36 (SCA36) is also translated into DPRs, including poly(GP) and poly(PR). We demonstrate that poly(GP) is more abundant in SCA36 compared to c9ALS/FTD patient tissue due to canonical AUG-mediated translation from intron-retained GGCCTG repeat RNAs. However, the frequency of the antisense RAN translation product poly(PR) is comparable between c9ALS/FTD and SCA36 patient samples. Interestingly, in SCA36 patient tissue, poly(GP) exists as a soluble species, and no TDP-43 pathology is present. We show that aggregate-prone chimeric DPR (cDPR) species underlie the divergent DPR pathology between c9ALS/FTD and SCA36. These findings reveal key differences in translation, solubility, and protein aggregation of DPRs between c9ALS/FTD and SCA36.