Increased High-Density Lipoprotein Levels Associated with Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Evidence from the EYE-RISK and European Eye Epidemiology Consortia.

PURPOSE: Genetic and epidemiologic studies have shown that lipid genes and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) are implicated in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). We studied circulating lipid levels in relationship to AMD in a large European dataset. DESIGN: Pooled analysis of cross-sectional data. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals (N = 30 953) aged 50 years or older participating in the European Eye Epidemiology (E3) consortium and 1530 individuals from the Rotterdam Study with lipid subfraction data. METHODS: AMD features were graded on fundus photographs using the Rotterdam classification. Routine blood lipid measurements, genetics, medication, and potential confounders were extracted from the E3 database. In a subgroup of the Rotterdam Study, lipid subfractions were identified by the Nightingale biomarker platform. Random-intercepts mixed-effects models incorporating confounders and study site as a random effect were used to estimate associations. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: AMD features and stage; lipid measurements. RESULTS: HDL was associated with an increased risk of AMD (odds ratio [OR], 1.21 per 1-mmol/l increase; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.14-1.29), whereas triglycerides were associated with a decreased risk (OR, 0.94 per 1-mmol/l increase; 95% CI, 0.91-0.97). Both were associated with drusen size. Higher HDL raised the odds of larger drusen, whereas higher triglycerides decreases the odds. LDL cholesterol reached statistical significance only in the association with early AMD (P = 0.045). Regarding lipid subfractions, the concentration of extra-large HDL particles showed the most prominent association with AMD (OR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.10-1.40). The cholesteryl ester transfer protein risk variant (rs17231506) for AMD was in line with increased HDL levels (P = 7.7 × 10-7), but lipase C risk variants (rs2043085, rs2070895) were associated in an opposite way (P = 1.0 × 10-6 and P = 1.6 × 10-4). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggested that HDL cholesterol is associated with increased risk of AMD and that triglycerides are negatively associated. Both show the strongest association with early AMD and drusen. Extra-large HDL subfractions seem to be drivers in the relationship with AMD, and variants in lipid genes play a more ambiguous role in this association. Whether systemic lipids directly influence AMD or represent lipid metabolism in the retina remains to be answered.

ClinVar database of global familial hypercholesterolemia-associated DNA variants.

Accurate and consistent variant classification is imperative for incorporation of rapidly developing sequencing technologies into genomic medicine for improved patient care. An essential requirement for achieving standardized and reliable variant interpretation is data sharing, facilitated by a centralized open-source database. Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is an exemplar of the utility of such a resource: it has a high incidence, a favorable prognosis with early intervention and treatment, and cascade screening can be offered to families if a causative variant is identified. ClinVar, an NCBI-funded resource, has become the primary repository for clinically relevant variants in Mendelian disease, including FH. Here, we present the concerted efforts made by the Clinical Genome Resource, through the FH Variant Curation Expert Panel and global FH community, to increase submission of FH-associated variants into ClinVar. Variant-level data was categorized by submitter, variant characteristics, classification method, and available supporting data. To further reform interpretation of FH-associated variants, areas for improvement in variant submissions were identified; these include a need for more detailed submissions and submission of supporting variant-level data, both retrospectively and prospectively. Collaborating to provide thorough, reliable evidence-based variant interpretation will ultimately improve the care of FH patients.

Oral docosahexaenoic acid in the prevention of exudative age-related macular degeneration: the Nutritional AMD Treatment 2 study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-enriched oral supplementation in preventing exudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD). DESIGN: The Nutritional AMD Treatment 2 study was a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, parallel, comparative study. PARTICIPANTS: Two hundred sixty-three patients 55 years of age or older and younger than 85 years with early lesions of age-related maculopathy and visual acuity better than 0.4 logarithm of minimum angle of resolution units in the study eye and neovascular AMD in the fellow eye. METHODS: Patients were assigned randomly to receive either 840 mg/day DHA and 270 mg/day eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from fish oil capsules or the placebo (olive oil capsules) for 3 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome measure was time to occurrence of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in the study eye. Secondary outcome measures in the study eye were: incidence of CNV developing in patients, changes in visual acuity, occurrence and progression of drusen, and changes in EPA plus DHA level in red blood cell membrane (RBCM). RESULTS: Time to occurrence and incidence of CNV in the study eye were not significantly different between the DHA group (19.5±10.9 months and 28.4%, respectively) and the placebo group (18.7±10.6 months and 25.6%, respectively). In the DHA group, EPA plus DHA levels increased significantly in RBCM (+70%; P<0.001), suggesting that DHA easily penetrated cells, but this occurred unexpectedly also in the placebo group (+9%; P = 0.007). In the DHA-allocated group, patients steadily achieving the highest tertile of EPA plus DHA levels in RBCM had significantly lower risk (-68%; P = 0.047; hazard ratio, 0.32; 95% confidence interval, 0.10-0.99) of CNV developing over 3 years. No marked changes from baseline in best-corrected visual acuity, drusen progression, or geographic atrophy in the study eye were observed throughout the study in either group. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with unilateral exudative AMD, 3 years of oral DHA-enriched supplementation had the same effect on CNV incidence in the second eye as did the placebo. However, RBCM fatty acid measurements revealed that CNV incidence was significantly reduced in DHA-supplemented patients showing a steadily high EPA plus DHA index over 3 years. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found after the references.

Study of LPIN1, LPIN2 and LPIN3 in rhabdomyolysis and exercise-induced myalgia.

BACKGROUND: Recessive LPIN1 mutations were identified as a cause of severe rhabdomyolysis in pediatric patients. The human lipin family includes two other closely related members, lipin-2 and 3, which share strong homology and similar activity. The study aimed to determine the involvement of the LPIN family genes in a cohort of pediatric and adult patients (n = 171) presenting with muscular symptoms, ranging from severe (CK >10 000 UI/L) or moderate (CK <10 000 UI/L) rhabdomyolysis (n = 141) to exercise-induced myalgia (n = 30), and to report the clinical findings in patients harboring mutations. METHODS: Coding regions of LPIN1, LPIN2 and LPIN3 genes were sequenced using genomic or complementary DNAs. RESULTS: Eighteen patients harbored two LPIN1 mutations, including a frequent intragenic deletion. All presented with severe episodes of rhabdomyolysis, starting before age 6 years except two (8 and 42 years). Few patients also suffered from permanent muscle symptoms, including the eldest ones (≥ 40 years). Around 3/4 of muscle biopsies showed accumulation of lipid droplets. At least 40% of heterozygous relatives presented muscular myalgia. Nine heterozygous SNPs in LPIN family genes were identified in milder phenotypes (mild rhabdomyolysis or myalgia). These variants were non-functional in yeast complementation assay based on respiratory activity, except the LPIN3-P24L variant. CONCLUSION: LPIN1-related myolysis constitutes a major cause of early-onset rhabdomyolysis and occasionally in adults. Heterozygous LPIN1 mutations may cause mild muscular symptoms. No major defects of LPIN2 or LPIN3 genes were associated with muscular manifestations.

Response by sex to statin plus ezetimibe or statin monotherapy: a pooled analysis of 22,231 hyperlipidemic patients.

BACKGROUND: Despite documented benefits of lipid-lowering treatment in women, a considerable number are undertreated, and fewer achieve treatment targets vs. men. METHODS: Data were combined from 27 double-blind, active or placebo-controlled studies that randomized adult hypercholesterolemic patients to statin or statin+ezetimibe. Consistency of treatment effect among men (n = 11,295) and women (n = 10,499) was assessed and percent of men and women was calculated to evaluate the between-treatment ability to achieve specified treatment levels between sexes. RESULTS: Baseline lipids and hs-CRP were generally higher in women vs. men. Between-treatment differences were significant for both sexes (all p < 0.001 except apolipoprotein A-I in men = 0.0389). Men treated with ezetimibe+statin experienced significantly greater changes in LDL-C (p = 0.0066), non-HDL-C, total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL-C, apolipoprotein A-I (all p < 0.0001) and apolipoprotein B (p = 0.0055) compared with women treated with ezetimibe+statin. The odds of achieving LDL-C < 100 mg/dL, apolipoprotein B < 90 mg/dL and the dual target [LDL-C < 100 mg/dL & apoliprotein B < 90 mg/dL] was significantly greater for women vs. men and the odds of achieving hs-CRP < 1 and < 2 mg/L and dual specified levels of [LDL-C < 100 mg/dL and hs-CRP < 2 mg/L] were significantly greater for men vs. women. Women reported significantly more gall-bladder-related, gastrointestinal-related, and allergic reaction or rash-related adverse events (AEs) vs. men (no differences between treatments). Men reported significantly more CK elevations (no differences between treatments) and hepatitis-related AEs vs. women (significantly more with ezetimibe+simvastatin vs. statin). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that small sex-related differences may exist in response to lipid-lowering treatment and achievement of specified lipid and hs-CRP levels, which may have implications when managing hypercholesterolemia in women.

The ALGOVUE Clinical Trial: Effects of the Daily Consumption of Eggs Enriched with Lutein and Docosahexaenoic Acid on Plasma Composition and Macular Pigment Optical Density.

BACKGROUND: Carotenoids and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were identified as essential components for eye health and are both naturally present in eggs. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to evaluate the effect of the daily consumption of two eggs enriched with lutein/zeaxanthin and DHA on macular pigment optical density (MPOD) and on circulating xanthophyll and fatty acid concentrations in healthy participants. METHODS: Ninety-nine healthy volunteers consumed either two standard eggs or two enriched eggs per day for 4 months. MPOD was measured at baseline (V0) and at follow-up (V4) using a modified confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope (primary outcome). Blood samples were collected to determine total plasma and lipoprotein fatty acids and lutein/zeaxanthin compositions at V0 and V4 (secondary outcomes). RESULTS: A slight but significant increase in MPOD was observed for all study participants consuming two eggs per day for 4 months at all eccentricities (0.5°, 1°, 2°, and 4°). Plasma and lipoprotein lutein, zeaxanthin, and DHA concentrations significantly increased in both groups but were greater in the enriched group (for the enriched group (V0 vs. V4): lutein, 167 vs. 369 ng/mL; zeaxanthin, 17.7 vs. 29.2 ng/mL; DHA, 1.89 vs. 2.56% of total fatty acids). Interestingly, lutein from high-density lipoprotein (HDL) was strongly correlated with MPOD at 0.5 and 1° eccentricities (rho = 0.385, p = 0.008, and rho = 0.461, p = 0.001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: MPOD was slightly increased in both groups. Lutein, zeaxanthin, and DHA plasma concentrations were strongly enhanced in the enriched group compared with the standard group. A significant correlation was found between MPOD level and lutein concentration in HDL.

PCSK9 dominant negative mutant results in increased LDL catabolic rate and familial hypobetalipoproteinemia.

OBJECTIVE: Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a central player in the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis, increasing the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor degradation. Our study aimed at exploring the pathogenic consequences in vivo and in vitro of a PCSK9 prodomain mutation found in a family with hypobetalipoproteinemia (FHBL). METHODS AND RESULTS: A white 49-year-old diabetic man had profound FBHL (LDLC: 16 mg/dL) whereas his daughter and sister displayed a milder phenotype (LDLC 44 mg/dL and 57 mg/dL, respectively), all otherwise healthy with a normal liver function. A monoallelic PCSK9 double-mutant R104C/V114A cosegregated with FBHL, with no mutation found at other FHBL-causing loci. A dose-effect was also found in FBHL relatives for plasma APOB and PCSK9 (very-low to undetectable in proband, approximately 50% decreased in sister and daughter) and LDL catabolic rate (256% and 88% increased in proband and daughter). Transient transfection in hepatocytes showed severely impaired processing and secretion of the double mutant which acted as a dominant negative over secretion of wild-type PCSK9. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that heterozygous PCSK9 missense mutations may associate with profound hypobetalipoproteinemia and constitute the first direct evidence in human that decrease of plasma LDLC concentrations associated to PCSK9 LOF mutations are attributable to an increased clearance rate of LDL.

[Genetic factors associated with age-related macular degeneration]. / Génétique de la dégénérescence maculaire liée à l'âge.

Age related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of vision loss in the elderly in developed countries. Genetic factors play a major role in this multifactorial and polygenic disease. Genomewide analysis identified two loci on 1q25-31 and 10q26 chromosomes associated with AMD, and association studies highlighted the implication of SNPs located in the complement H factor gene (CFH) on 1q25-31 and in PLEKHA1-HTRA1-LOC387715 on 10q26 in the disease. Homozygous carriers for the at-risk alleles of the CFH, HTRA1, and LOC387715 genes have an increased risk to develop exudative AMD with odds ratio of 6.2, 6.9, et 7.3 respectively. Moreover, other genes involved in the complement cascade, namely the genes of the C2, C3 component, and factor B, are associated to the disease. The SCARB1 gene has also recently been associated to AMD. Genotype-phenotype correlations have been performed in AMD patients and found that occult CNV are more often associated to CFH at-risk allele and classic CNV to HTRA1 at-risk allele. This last allele seems also linked to more severe forms of the disease. These new major genetic factors could lead to a new clinical approach of AMD and to the discovery of new therapeutic targets.

Diagnosis scoring for clinical identification of children with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia.

BACKGROUND: Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a frequent monogenic condition characterized by progressive atherosclerosis requiring preventive therapy from childhood. In a pediatric setting, heterozygous FH (hFH) in children may not be identified from common forms of hypercholesterolemia (HC). OBJECTIVE: To elaborate a clinical scoring system for the diagnosis of hFH, defined by the presence of a disease-causing mutation of the gene for the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR). PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 100 unrelated children (6 +/-3 years old, 43 boys, 57 girls) with type IIa HC (LDLC >130 mg/dL) and complete genetic testing (at loci for genes for LDLR, apolipoprotein B, proprotein convertase subtilisin-like kesin type 9, and apolipoprotein E) were selected for score elaboration. Of 60 criteria from clinical records and family questionnaires, predictors of having hFH were estimated by logistic regression analysis. Scores were validated in 38 other unrelated children with HC. RESULTS: Three independent predictors of hFH were identified according to the LDLR genotype (50 Microt+/50 Microt-): low-density lipoprotein cholesterol before (262 vs 178 mg/dL, P < 0.001) and after (225 vs 142 mg/dL, P < 0.001) 3 months or more of a lipid-lowering diet, combined with parental statin usage (odds ratio 6.2; 95% confidence interval 1.4-28.3; P = 0.018). High precision and accuracy of the scoring system (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve = 0.94; 95% confidence interval 0.91-0.98) were translated into 4 probability classes (definite/probable/possible/improbable hFH) with a false-negative rate of 12%. CONCLUSIONS: A score distinguishing hFH from common HC provides a simple tool for appropriate clinical decision and care in high-risk children.

Ontology-guided data preparation for discovering genotype-phenotype relationships.

BACKGROUND: Complexity and amount of post-genomic data constitute two major factors limiting the application of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) methods in life sciences. Bio-ontologies may nowadays play key roles in knowledge discovery in life science providing semantics to data and to extracted units, by taking advantage of the progress of Semantic Web technologies concerning the understanding and availability of tools for knowledge representation, extraction, and reasoning. RESULTS: This paper presents a method that exploits bio-ontologies for guiding data selection within the preparation step of the KDD process. We propose three scenarios in which domain knowledge and ontology elements such as subsumption, properties, class descriptions, are taken into account for data selection, before the data mining step. Each of these scenarios is illustrated within a case-study relative to the search of genotype-phenotype relationships in a familial hypercholesterolemia dataset. The guiding of data selection based on domain knowledge is analysed and shows a direct influence on the volume and significance of the data mining results. CONCLUSIONS: The method proposed in this paper is an efficient alternative to numerical methods for data selection based on domain knowledge. In turn, the results of this study may be reused in ontology modelling and data integration.

Sustained increase of HDL cholesterol over a 72-week period in HIV-infected patients exposed to an antiretroviral regimen including lopinavir/ritonavir.

Metabolic disorders are a major concern during antiretroviral therapy, especially for their potential to increase cardiovascular disease risk. In a multicenter, prospective study conducted in patients exposed to an antiretroviral regimen including lopinavir boosted with ritonavir, an early and sustained increase of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was observed over a 72-week period. This increase was positively correlated with the exposure to lopinavir/ritonavir during the first 24 weeks.

PLEKHA1-LOC387715-HTRA1 polymorphisms and exudative age-related macular degeneration in the French population.

PURPOSE: Identification of genetic factors for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is of crucial importance in this common cause of blindness. Exudative AMD is rapidly progressive and usually associated with severe prognosis. Our purpose was to investigate this association on locus 10q26 in a case-control study including French patients specifically affected with exudative AMD. METHODS: Polymorphisms rs4146894:G>A of Pleckstrin Homology Domain-containing Protein Family A member 1 (PLEKHA1) gene, rs10490924:G>T at LOC387715, and rs11200638:G>A of HTRA1 (HTRA serine peptidase 1) gene were analyzed in AMD cases (n=118, age=72.3+/-3.8 years old) and healthy controls (n=116, age=72.0+/-3.8 years old). RESULTS: PLEKHA1 polymorphism was associated with AMD. The A allele frequency was 0.67 in cases versus 0.41 in controls, (p=0.0001). After age and sex adjustment, the odds ratio for risk of AMD was 9.1 (4.0-20.9, 95% CI, p=0.0001) for the AA genotype and 2.6 (1.3-5.5, 95% CI, p=0.04) for the AG genotype, conditional on HTRA1. Association was even stronger and independent with HTRA1. The A allele frequency was 0.51 in cases versus 0.22 in controls, (p=0.0001). The odds ratio was 15.5 (5.5-43.9, 95% CI, p=0.0001) for the AA genotype and 3.4 (1.9-6.1, 95% CI, p=0.0001) for the AG genotype. No further information was obtained from LOC387715 due to virtually complete linkage disequilibrium with HTRA1 polymorphism in cases (D'=1.0) and controls (D'=0.98). Although a role for PLEKHA1 could not be totally excluded, there was a four times higher AMD risk was associated with haplotype "A-T-A" involving "PLEKHA1-LOC387715-HTRA1" risk alleles. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to PLEKHA1, HTRA1/LOC387715 genetic variations were independently and strongly associated with exudative AMD in the French population. Chromosome-10 genetic variants appear as potentially useful risk markers for early detection of AMD.

Dynamic Drusen Remodelling in Participants of the Nutritional AMD Treatment-2 (NAT-2) Randomized Trial.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the dynamic remodeling of drusen in subjects with unilateral neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD) receiving a three-year course of oral docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or placebo. SETTING: Institutional setting. METHODS: Three hundred subjects with age-related maculopathy and neovascular AMD in the fellow eye were randomly assigned to receive either 840 mg/day DHA or placebo for 3 years. Main outcome measures of this post-hoc sub-group analysis were progression of drusen number, total diameter, and total area on fundus photography, and their association with DHA supplementation, socio-demographic and genetic characteristics. RESULTS: Drusen progression was analyzed in 167 subjects that did not develop CNV (87 that received DHA and 80 that received placebo). None of the drusen remodeling outcomes were significantly associated with DHA supplementation. Total drusen diameter reduction in the inner subfield was significantly associated with age (older patients: r = -0.17; p = 0.003). Women showed a tendency to decreased total drusen diameter in the inner subfield with CFH polymorphism (p = 0.03), where women with TT genotype tended to have a greater reduction in drusen diameter than other genotypes (CC and CT). Drusen area in the inner subfield was more reduced in older patients (r = -0.17) and in women (p = 0.01). Drusen number showed no significant trends. CONCLUSIONS: Dynamic drusen remodeling with net reduction in drusen load over three years was found in patients with exudative AMD in one eye and drusen in the other eye (study-eye). This reduction was correlated with increased age and female gender, and showed a tendency to be influenced by CFH genotype, but did not appear to be affected by DHA supplementation. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Controlled-Trials.com ISRCTN98246501.

Development of new quantitative mass spectrometry and semi-automatic isofocusing methods for the determination of Apolipoprotein E typing.

BACKGROUND: Apolipoprotein E (Apo E) is a 36 Kda glycoprotein involved in lipid transport. It exists in 3 major isoforms: E2, E3 and E4. ApoE status is known to be a major risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's and cardiovascular diseases. Genotyping is commonly used to obtain ApoE status but can show technical issues with ambiguous determinations. Phenotyping can be an alternative, not requiring genetic material. We evaluated the ability to accurately type ApoE isoforms by 2 phenotyping tests in comparison with genotyping. METHODS: Two phenotyping techniques were used: (1) LC-MS/MS detection of 4 ApoE specific peptides (6490 Agilent triple quadripole): After its denaturation, serum was either reduced and alkylated, or only diluted, and then trypsin digested. Before analysis, desalting, evaporation and resuspension were performed. (2) Isoelectric focusing and immunoprecipitation: serum samples were neuraminidase digested, delipidated and electrophoresed on Hydragel ApoE (Sebia agarose gel) using Hydrasys 2 Scan instrument (Sebia, Lisses, France). ApoE isoforms bands were directly immunofixed in the gel using a polyclonal anti human ApoE antibody. Then, incubation of the gel with HRP secondary antibody followed by TTF1/TTF2 substrate allowed the visualization of ApoE bands. The results of the two techniques were compared to genotyping. RESULTS: Sera from 35 patients previously genotyped were analyzed with the 2 phenotyping techniques. 100% concordance between both phenotyping assays was obtained for the tested phenotypes (E2/E2, E2/E3, E2/E4, E3/E3, E3/E4, E4/E4). When compared to genotyping, 3 samples were discordant. After reanalyzing them by both phenotyping tests and DNA sequencing, 2/3 discrepancies were confirmed. Those can be explained by variants or rare ApoE alleles or by unidentified technical issues. 102 additional samples were then tested on LC-MS/MS only and compared to genotyping. The data showed 100% concordance. CONCLUSION: Our 2 phenotyping methods represent a valuable alternative to genotyping. LC-MS/MS has the advantage of being fully specific, with identification of the different isoforms and can be considered as a reference method. Sebia isofocusing technique was concordant with LC-MS/MS. Plus, it is a rapid, semi-automated assay that can be easily implemented in clinical laboratories.

Novel mutations of the PCSK9 gene cause variable phenotype of autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia.

Autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia (ADH) is a frequent (1/500) monogenic inherited disorder characterized by isolated elevation of LDL leading to premature cardiovascular disease. ADH is known to result from mutations at two main loci: LDLR (encoding the low density lipoprotein receptor), and APOB (encoding apolipoprotein B100), its natural ligand. We previously demonstrated that ADH is also caused by mutations of the PCSK9 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9) gene that encodes Narc-1 (neural apoptosis-regulated convertase 1). However, the role of this novel disease locus as a cause of hypercholesterolemia remains unclear. In the present study, we analysed the PCSK9 coding region and intronic junctions in 130 adult or pediatric patients with ADH, previously found as being non LDLR/non APOB mutation carriers. Four novel heterozygous missense variations were found: c.654A>T (p.R218S), c.1070G>A (p.R357H), c.1405C>T (p.R469W), and c.1327G>A (p.A443T). All mutations were absent in 340 normolipidemic controls. Except for the A443T, all mutations are nonconservative and modify a highly conserved residue. Segregation with hypercholesterolemia is incomplete in one pedigree. Type and severity of hyperlipidemia and of cardiovascular disease could vary among subjects from the same family. Finally, the proband carrying the R357H mutation exhibited very high plasma cholesterol during pregnancy, whereas the proband carrying the p.R469W mutation exhibited a severe phenotype of hypercholesterolemia in combination with a LDLR mutation resulting from a frameshift at residue F382 (1209delC). These observations suggest that variations in PCSK9 are a rare cause of non LDLR/non APOB ADH (approximately 2.3%) and that additional environmental or genetic factors may contribute to the phenotype caused by PCSK9 missense mutations in humans.