Prevalence of anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and utility of clotting time assays to detect coagulopathy.

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) continue to be used across the United States as a method for controlling pest rodent species. As a consequence, wild birds of prey are exposed to these toxicants by eating poisoned prey items. ARs prevent the hepatic recycling of vitamin K and thereby impede the post-translational processing of coagulation factors II, VII, IX, and X that are required for procoagulant complex assembly. Through this mechanism of action, ARs cause hemorrhage and death in their target species. Various studies have documented the persistence of these contaminants in birds of prey but few have attempted to use affordable and accessible diagnostic tests to diagnose coagulopathy in free-ranging birds of prey. In our study free-ranging red-tailed hawks were found to be exposed to difethialone and brodifacoum. Eleven of sixteen (68%) livers tested for AR exposure had detectable residues. Difethialone was found in 1/16 (6%), and brodifacoum was detected in 10/16 (62%) liver samples that were tested for rodenticide residues. Difethialone was found at a concentration of 0.18 ug/g wet weight and brodifacoum concentrations ranged from 0.003-0.234 ug/g wet weight. Two out of 34 (6%) RTHA assessed for blood rodenticide had brodifacoum in serum with measured concentrations of 0.003 and 0.006 ug/g. The range of clotting times in the prothrombin time (PT) and Russell's viper venom time assays for control RTHA were 16.7 to 39.7 s and 11.5 to 91.8 s, respectively. One study bird was diagnosed with clinical AR intoxication with a brodifacoum levels in blood of 0.006 and 0.234 ug/g wet weight in blood and liver respectively, a packed cell volume (PCV) of 19%, and PT and RVVT times of >180 s. No correlation was found between PT and RVVT in the control or free-range RTHA, and there was no relationship found between the presence of liver anticoagulant residues and clotting times in the PT and RVVT.

SALMONELLA ISOLATED FROM CENTRAL NEW YORK WILDLIFE ADMITTED TO A VETERINARY MEDICAL TEACHING HOSPITAL.

The role of wildlife as a source of zoonotic Salmonella transmission is poorly understood, as are the clinical implications of this pathogen among wildlife species. Wildlife hospitals represent an important location to conduct Salmonella surveillance, given the wide variety of species admitted for medical and surgical care. Our objectives were to estimate the prevalence of fecal Salmonella shedding among wildlife admitted to a veterinary medical teaching hospital, to identify risk factors for infection, and to fully characterize the isolates. Voided fecal samples (birds and mammals) and cloacal swab samples (reptiles and amphibians) were collected between May 2018 and March 2020. Standard bacteriologic culture methods were used to detect Salmonella, and isolates were characterized via serotyping, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and whole-genome sequencing. Samples were collected from 348 wildlife patients representing 74 wildlife species, and the apparent prevalence of fecal Salmonella shedding was 1.4% (5/348; 95% confidence interval, 0.5-3.3%). Four serotypes were identified, and isolates were phenotypically susceptible to all antimicrobial agents tested. Two isolates were closely related to human clinical isolates, demonstrating the overlap between wildlife and human pathogens. Fecal Salmonella shedding among hospitalized wildlife appears to be uncommon, and the risk of either nosocomial or zoonotic Salmonella transmission is presumably low. Nevertheless, the occurrence of Salmonella in wildlife, particularly among common species found in a wide array of habitats, poses a potential threat to public health and may result in transmission to more-vulnerable wildlife populations.

A Novel Exophiala Species Associated With Disseminated Granulomatous Inflammation in a Captive Eastern Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis).

The genus Exophiala is composed of ubiquitous, pigmented, saprotrophic fungi and includes both terrestrial and waterborne species. Though Exophiala species are generally considered opportunistic pathogens, exophialosis can be an important cause of morbidity and mortality in aquatic and semi-aquatic species. Over a 6-year period, a captive 32-year-old male eastern hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis), was treated for recurring, slow growing, ventral midline cutaneous masses. Excisional biopsies were characterized histologically by granulomatous dermatitis with low numbers of intralesional, pigmented fungal conidia and hyphae. Bacterial and fungal cultures of the masses and skin were negative on two separate submissions. Polymerase chain reaction amplification of a short fragment of the fungal 28S large subunit (LSU) ribosomal RNA was positive with 100% nucleotide sequence identity to several species of Exophiala. Following recurrence after successive rounds of antifungal therapy, euthanasia was elected. At necropsy, similar dermal granulomatous inflammation and intralesional pigmented fungal elements as observed in excisional biopsies formed a thick band in the dermis and extended through the coelomic body wall. Visceral dissemination was noted in the lung and kidney. Postmortem DNA sequence analysis of a large portion of the fungal LSU as well as the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) from a portion of frozen affected dermis identified the fungus as a novel species, Exophiala sp. 1 (UTHSCSA R-5437).

Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography imaging of normal foveae: A pilot study in 17 diurnal birds of prey.

OBJECTIVE: To describe and to establish normative data for the foveae of diurnal birds of prey using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). METHODS: All animals (9 red-tailed hawks, 3 Cooper's hawks, 3 American kestrels, 1 sharp-shinned hawk, and 1 broad-winged hawk) had an ophthalmic examination performed with slit lamp biomicroscopy and indirect ophthalmoscopy. Following ophthalmic examination, SD-OCT was performed in each eye that had a visible fundus and normal fovea on SD-OCT. Temporal foveae depth, central foveae depth, pecten-temporal foveae distance, and pecten-central foveae distance (PCFD) were measured using SD-OCT. Differences in measured outcomes between species were determined using generalized linear mixed effects models. RESULTS: The central foveae (mean ± SD) displayed a small but significant depth variation between species (P = .002) and was deepest in red-tailed hawks (293 ± 16 µm), followed by American kestrels (260 ± 12 µm), broad-winged hawks (256 ± 16 µm), Cooper's hawks (250 ± 9 µm), and sharp-shinned hawks (239 ± 16 µm). The temporal foveae were shallower than the central foveae in all species tested, and there was a significant variation between species (P < .001). The temporal foveae (mean ± SD) were deepest in American kestrels (137 ± 8 µm), followed by red-tailed hawks (129 ± 3 µm), broad-winged hawks (59.5 ± 3.5 µm), Cooper's hawks (20.3 ± 6.4 µm), and sharp-shinned hawks (17.5 ± 0.7 µm). Pecten-temporal foveae distance was approximately 30% shorter than PCFD in all species. There were no differences in the parameters tested between the eyes within each species (P ≥ .47). CONCLUSION: Normative foveae SD-OCT data were obtained in four species of diurnal birds of prey. Further studies are warranted to provide structural and functional information regarding normal and pathologic changes that can affect the foveae.

Epilepsy in nonhuman primates.

OBJECTIVES: Nonhuman primates (NHPs) are model organisms for understanding the pathophysiology and treatment of epilepsy in humans, while data from human patients informs the diagnosis and treatment of NHP with seizures and epilepsy. We reviewed the literature and surveyed veterinarians at zoos and NHP research centers to (a) better define the range of seizures and epilepsy in NHP, (b) understand how NHPs can inform our knowledge of the pathophysiology and treatment of epilepsy in humans, and (c) identify gaps of knowledge and develop more effective guidelines to treat seizures and epilepsy in NHP. METHODS: We searched PrimateLit, PubMed, and Google Scholar for studies on experimental models of epilepsy in NHPs and on naturally occurring seizures and epilepsy in NHPs in captivity. In addition, we created a survey to assess methods to diagnose and treat epilepsy in NHPs. This survey was sent to 41 veterinarians at major international zoos and research facilities with NHP populations to study seizure phenomenology, diagnostic criteria for seizures and epilepsy, etiology, and antiseizure therapies in NHPs. RESULTS: We summarize the data from experimental and natural models of epilepsy in NHPs and case reports of epilepsy of unknown origin in captive primates. In addition, we present survey data collected from veterinarians at eight zoos and one research facility. Experimental data from NHP epilepsy models is abundant, whereas data from primates who develop epilepsy in the wild or in zoos is very limited, constraining our ability to advance evidence-based medicine. SIGNIFICANCE: Characterization of seizure or epilepsy models in NHPs will provide insights into mechanisms and new therapies that cannot be addressed by other animal models. NHP research will better inform species-specific diagnoses and outcomes.

THE PASSAGE AND DURATION OF ANTIBODIES TO WEST NILE VIRUS IN HUMBOLDT PENGUINS (SPHENISCUS HUMBOLDTI).

West Nile virus (genus Flavivirus) outbreaks and mortality events have been documented in both wild and captive avian species, including penguins. Serologic response to vaccination in avian species has varied and appears to be largely species dependent; however, Humboldt penguins ( Spheniscus humboldti ) previously showed excellent rates of seroconversion. The goal of this study was to determine virus neutralization titers of 17 Humboldt penguin hens and their subsequent eggs, chicks, or both following vaccination with a killed West Nile vaccine. Chicks were also vaccinated at 56, 70, and 84 days old. Titers were measured from 10-346 days prior to lay as well as serially in seven chicks. Data collected showed positive rank correlation between maternal titers and yolk titers (ρ = 0.90, P < 0.0001, n = 14) but no association between booster vaccination and yolk titers. All seven chicks had detectable antibody on days 14 and 28, and antibody levels had increased (relative to day 56) in 3 of 6 chicks (50%; 95% confidence interval 14-86%) by day 112. Further information is provided on a suggested vaccination schedule for Humboldt penguin chicks based on a time-dependent decline in maternal antibody titers. Cell-mediated immunity and experimental challenge following vaccination have not yet been investigated in this species.

HEALTH ASSESSMENT OF CAPTIVE PSITTACINE SPECIES IN PRERELEASE PROGRAMS AT COSTA RICAN RESCUE CENTERS.

With stricter laws regulating the capture and possession of wild animals in Costa Rica, local wildlife-rescue centers have been overwhelmed by an influx of confiscated or relinquished illegal pets, specifically of psittacine species. As part of a nationwide health-assessment program targeting these centers, 122 birds representing five psittacine species ( Ara macao, Amazona autumnalis, Amazona auropalliata, Amazona farinosa, Aratinga finschi) and one hybrid macaw ( Ara macao × Ara ambiguus) were examined and tested between January 2011 and October 2012. Physical examination, hematology, and serum biochemical analyses were performed. Blood and feathers were tested for psittacine beak and feather disease virus (PBFDV) and avian polyomavirus (APV) via PCR. A DNA-based prevalence and sequence analysis characterized the strains of PBFDV and APV isolated. Physical abnormalities observed in 36% of the 122 birds examined were limited to thin body condition and poor feather quality. None of the feather abnormalities were characteristic of disease caused by either PBFDV or APV. Results of hematological and biochemical analyses were within normal limits except for five birds with leukocytosis and heterophilia, three birds with uric acid values above 16 mg/dl, and two additional birds with AST values above 400 IU/L. No hemoparasites were detected during blood smear examination. Overall prevalences of 9.8% (12/122) for PBFDV and 3.3% (4/122) for APV were documented, with only one bird testing positive for both PBFDV and APV. Birds from two of the eight centers were negative for both viruses. Findings from this study constitute the beginning of a standardized surveillance program for Costa Rican rescue centers, targeting the management of avian species enrolled in propagation and reintroduction programs and expanding of the spectrum of pathogen surveillance and husbandry recommendations in prerelease centers.

HEPATIC OSTEODYSTROPHY IN A GOLDEN LION TAMARIN (LEONTOPITHECUS ROSALIA).

An 8-yr-old, captive, female golden lion tamarin ( Leontopithecus rosalia ) with a 6-yr history of hyperbilirubinemia was examined for inappetence and weight loss. Physical examination and blood pressure monitoring under anesthesia revealed hypothermia and hypotension, and blood work revealed hypoglycemia, markedly elevated liver enzymes, including serum alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase, and confirmed the hyperbilirubinemia. A complete blood count suggested chronic lymphoid leukemia. The animal's condition deteriorated during recovery, and the animal died despite aggressive treatment. Grossly, there was micronodular cirrhosis of the liver, severe icterus, and diffuse osteopenia of all examined bones. Microscopic examination of the liver confirmed the micronodular cirrhosis and bone lesions were compatible with diffuse osteopenia and osteomalacia. This brief communication presents a case of chronic liver disease and lesions indicative of metabolic bone disease, also known as hepatic osteodystrophy. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first documented case of hepatic osteodystrophy in the veterinary literature.

EFFECT OF ε-AMINOCAPROIC ACID ON FIBRINOLYSIS IN PLASMA OF ASIAN ELEPHANTS (ELEPHAS MAXIMUS).

ε-Aminocaproic acid (EACA) is a lysine analogue antifibrinolytic drug used to treat bleeding disorders in humans and domestic animals. Use in zoological medicine is rare and dose recommendations are anecdotal, but EACA may be a valuable therapeutic option for bleeding disorders in exotic species, including Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ). This study used an in vitro model of hyperfibrinolysis and a thromboelastograph-based assay to estimate the therapeutic plasma concentration of EACA in Asian elephants (61.5 µg/ml, 95% CI = 34.6-88.5 µg/ml). Substantial but incomplete inhibition of lysis was seen at relatively low concentrations of EACA (40 µg/ml). Asian elephants appear sensitive to EACA-mediated inhibition of hyperfibrinolysis. Doses published for domestic animals, targeting higher plasma concentrations, may be inappropriate in this species.

PHARMACOKINETIC STUDY OF ORAL ε-AMINOCAPROIC ACID IN THE NORTHERN ELEPHANT SEAL (MIROUNGA ANGUSTIROSTRIS).

ε-Aminocaproic acid (EACA) is a lysine analogue antifibrinolytic drug used to treat bleeding disorders in humans and domestic animals. Its use in zoological medicine is rare, and dosage is anecdotal. One possible application of EACA is to treat bleeding associated with prepatent Otostrongylus arteritis in Northern elephant seals ( Mirounga angustirostris ) presenting to wildlife rehabilitation centers. This study used an in vitro model of hyperfibrinolysis and a thromboelastograph-based assay to estimate the therapeutic plasma concentration of EACA in elephant seals (85 µg/ml, 95% confidence interval = 73.8-96.8 µg/ml). A concurrent pharmacokinetic study of orally administered, single-dose EACA found that doses of 75 and 100 mg/kg achieved therapeutic plasma concentrations (>85 µg/ml), but the drug was rapidly eliminated and remained in the therapeutic range for only 0.4 and 1.5 hr, respectively. Models of repeated oral dosing at 100 mg/kg every 6 hr predict that therapeutic plasma concentration will be maintained for 31.7% (7.6 hr) of a 24-hr period. More frequent dosing would be required to maintain continuous therapeutic concentrations but would be impractical in a wildlife rehabilitation setting. Further pharmacodynamic studies to evaluate the duration of action of EACA in elephant seals and a prospective, placebo-controlled study are needed to determine if EACA is effective in decreasing bleeding associated with prepatent Otostrongylus arteritis and other bleeding disorders in this species.

Characterization and cryopreservation of semen from endangered markhor goats (Capra falconeri heptneri) with evaluation of reproductive seasonality.

The aims of this study were to determine the reproductive seasonality of four captive markhor goats (Capra falconeri heptneri), to characterize semen collected by electroejaculation, and to compare extenders and processing techniques for semen cryopreservation. Over the course of 1 yr, mean monthly scrotal circumference, serum testosterone, and fecal testosterone were measured and found to be inversely associated with day length. Maximum scrotal circumference (25.2 +/- 0.9 cm), serum testosterone (521.0 +/- 103.4 ng/dl), and fecal testosterone (382.5 +/- 90.3 ng/g) occurred in November, when day length was short (9.7 +/- 0.1 hr). Once a month for 3 mo (December, January, and February), bucks were anesthetized for electroejaculation and semen evaluation. Semen samples were divided into six aliquots for extension and cryopreservation in soy-based Bioxcell or Tris-based extender with 5 or 15% egg yolk, with and without centrifugation. Samples were then thawed for repeat evaluation 1-3 mo later. Postthaw evaluation revealed no significant differences between centrifuged and noncentrifuged samples. Sperm in Tris 5% and 15% egg yolk displayed higher total motility at 0, 3, and 6 hr postthaw and higher progressive motility postthaw compared with sperm in Bioxcell (P < 0.05). Sperm in Bioxcell displayed higher viability than sperm in both Tris-egg yolk extenders (P < 0.01), more intact acrosomes than sperm in Tris-15% egg yolk (P < 0.05), and a tendency for more intact acrosomes than sperm in Tris-5% egg yolk (P < 0.10). Sperm in Tris-5% egg yolk tended to have a higher percentage of morphologically normal sperm compared with Bioxcell (P < 0.10). This study provides evidence that markhor goats exhibit seasonality in scrotal circumference and testosterone levels and that centrifugation may be eliminated from the processing of markhor semen.

Metastatic pancreatic carcinoma and bronchioloalveolar adenomas in an Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus).

An adult female, intact Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) was presented for lethargy, anorexia, and markedly reduced flying activity. Physical and ultrasound examinations were suggestive of an abdominal mass with free fluid within the abdomen. Based on the poor and deteriorating clinical condition of the animal, euthanasia was elected. Gross necropsy revealed an irregular thickening at the root of the mesentery and a diffusely, dark-red liver with rounded hepatic margins. Histologic examination revealed extensive neoplastic effacement of the pancreas with invasion into the surrounding mesentery and mesenteric lymph nodes and metastatic spread to the liver. Based on the morphology of the neoplastic cells, the involvement of the pancreas, and immunohistochemistry, a diagnosis of metastatic pancreatic carcinoma was made. Additionally, two small neoplasms were identified in the lungs. These masses were distinct from the carcinoma, and their morphology was consistent with bronchioloalveolar adenomas. This is the first known report of either benign pulmonary lesions or pancreatic carcinomas in the order Chiroptera.

Strangulating intestinal obstructions in four captive elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta africana).

Three captive-born (5-day-old, 8-day-old, and 4-yr-old) Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and one captive-born 22-yr-old African elephant (Loxodonta africana) from three private elephant facilities and one zoo in the United States presented with depression, anorexia, and tachycardia as well as gastrointestinal signs of disease including abdominal distention, decreased borborygmi, tenesmus, hematochezia, or diarrhea. All elephants showed some evidence of discomfort including agitation, vocalization, or postural changes. One animal had abnormal rectal findings. Nonmotile bowel loops were seen on transabdominal ultrasound in another case. Duration of signs ranged from 6 to 36 hr. All elephants received analgesics and were given oral or rectal fluids. Other treatments included warm-water enemas or walking. One elephant underwent exploratory celiotomy. Three animals died, and the elephant taken to surgery was euthanized prior to anesthetic recovery. At necropsy, all animals had severe, strangulating intestinal lesions.

Proliferative thyroid lesions and hyperthyroidism in captive fishers (Martes pennanti).

Diseases of the thyroid gland are common in many zoo species, but there are few descriptions of thyroid dysfunction in Mustelidae. A 7-yr-old, captive-bred female fisher (Martes pennanti) with progressive alopecia was diagnosed with clinical hyperthyroidism based on persistent elevation of both total and free serum thyroxine and triiodothyronine, ultrasound examination, and histologic evidence of adenomatous hyperplasia. Four additional geriatric adult fishers (two male and two female) were identified with thyroid adenomatous hyperplasia in a review of 23 postmortem records. Banked sera were available for thyroid hormone testing from three of the four necropsy cases. Total and free thyroxine were elevated in four of four animals tested, and triiodothyronine was elevated in two of three animals tested. Necropsy findings in four cases identified cardiac hypertrophy, congestive heart failure, and vascular lesions consistent with hypertension; complete tissues were not available from the remaining case. Clinical and subclinical hyperthyroidism may be a common but overlooked condition of captive fishers.

Intestinal lymphoma of granular lymphocytes in a fisher (Martes pennanti) and a Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra).

Intestinal lymphoma of granular lymphocytes was diagnosed in a 6-year-old fisher (Martes pennanti) and a geriatric Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra). Clinical signs included lethargy and inappetance in both animals and vomiting and occasional diarrhea in the fisher. The diagnosis in both cases was made using cytology of fresh tissue, histology of fixed tissues, and immunohistochemistry. Granules were seen most clearly on cytologic examination of direct impressions from fresh tissue. Because granules were absent in most histologic sections, cytology of fresh tissue was essential for the diagnosis. Immunohistochemistry determined that the neoplastic cells had positive membranous immunoreactivity to CD3 and were negative for CD79a, which was consistent with alimentary T-cell lymphoma. The disease course in both animals was presumed to be aggressive, with rapid progression of clinical signs, high mitotic index and effacement of local intestinal architecture in both cases, and metastatic disease in the fisher. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of lymphoma of granular lymphocytes in a fisher and a Eurasian otter.

Electrocardiography of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).

Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are infrequently performed on Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and few studies have been reported in the literature. The aim of this study was to determine reference ranges of ECG parameters in Asian elephants and to ascertain if age, body weight, and position of the elephant significantly affected the ECG. Electrocardiograms were obtained from 27 captive, nonsedated apparently healthy Asian elephants while they were standing (ST), in right lateral recumbency (RL), and/or in left lateral recumbency (LL). Six-lead ECGs were obtained using novel clamps and long ECG cables (71 cm). From lead I, standard waveforms and intervals were analyzed, including PR interval, QT interval, ST segment, P, QRS, T, and U waves if they were present. One animal was determined to have a previously undiagnosed conduction abnormality and was not included in the study. Most elephants had a sinus arrhythmia in at least one position. With increasing age, there was a trend toward a slower heart rate and significantly longer P waves. Increasing body weight was significantly correlated with longer QT intervals and T waves with lower amplitude. Compared with measurements in ST, LL resulted in P waves and QRS complexes with shorter amplitude, U waves with greater amplitude, PR intervals with shorter duration, and an increased heart rate. Compared with measurements in LL, RL resulted in larger QRS complexes. U waves were most commonly detected in RL and LL. Mean electrical axis calculated in the frontal plane were as follows: standing range -125 to +141 degrees, mean -5 degrees; left lateral range -15 to +104 degrees, mean 27 degrees; right lateral range -16 to +78 degrees, mean 9 degrees. Position-specific reference ranges should be used when interpreting ECGs, and clinicians must be aware of how age and body weight may affect the ECG.

Evaluation of oral itraconazole administration in captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti).

Aspergillus spp. fungal infections are the most common cause of morbidity and mortality in captive penguins. Itraconazole has been the drug of choice for both therapeutic and prophylactic treatment; however, the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters can be highly variable in different species, and it has not been evaluated in penguins. In this study, four preliminary steady-state trials were performed to compare two oral formulations of itraconazole (commercial capsules compared with generic bulk compounded powder) at two different dosages (6 or 12 mg/kg once a day) administered in fish to small groups of captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). Building on this data, a final steady-state trial was performed with the use of a 7 mg/kg oral dosage twice a day of commercial capsules given in fish to a group of 15 penguins. With sparse sampling, blood was drawn for testing from small subsets of each treatment group at 4-7 time points in the 24-hr period after the final dose of itraconazole on day 14. Steady-state plasma concentrations of itraconazole and hydroxyitraconazole, the major metabolite, were determined by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Treatment with the generic bulk compounded product resulted in plasma levels of itraconazole that were undetectable for 26 out of 30 blood samples, compared with seven out of 20 blood samples for the commercial product at the same dosage. On the basis of study results, an estimated oral dosage of either 8.5 mg/kg twice a day or 20 mg/kg once a day of the commercial itraconazole capsules given in fish would produce adequate steady-state therapeutic blood levels in Humboldt penguins.

Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in a closed colony of Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus).

An outbreak of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis (Yptb) occurred in a closed colony of Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) and resulted in the death of seven bats over a 6-week period. An initial survey of the remaining bats revealed visceral abscessation characteristic of pseudotuberculosis in five of the 12 bats examined (41.7%), inciting depopulation of the colony. At necropsy, 70% of the 115 bats in the colony exhibited gross evidence suggestive of Yptb infection, including mesenteric lymphadenopathy (ML), hepatic abscessation (HA), and/or splenomegaly (SPM). Thirty of these bats (13 females and 17 males of various ages) were chosen at random and their tissues submitted for bacterial culture and histopathologic examination. Twenty-three of these 30 bats had one or more gross lesions considered consistent with Yptb, including ML, HA, and SPM. On histopathology, four of the 30 bats had necrotizing lesions containing Gram-negative bacteria in multiple organs, while 18 others exhibited mild mesenteric lymphadenitis and hepatitis. Four of the 30 bats had positive cultures for Yptb. Bats with gross evidence of mesenteric lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, or histopathologic presence of demodicosis or bacteria in tissues were more likely (P < 0.05) to have a positive Yersinia culture. Examination of the correlation between population density and mortality rates of the colony revealed that the mortality rate of subadult bats increased dramatically at the time of the outbreak, when the population density was at its highest. It is suspected that stress, primarily from severe overcrowding, predisposed the bat colony to morbidity and mortality from this organism, which likely originated from a rodent reservoir.

Diagnosis and treatment of Babesia odocoilei in captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and recognition of three novel host species.

Two captive reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) at a New York zoological institution were diagnosed with Babesia odocoilei. Clinical signs consistent with acute babesiosis included fever, hemoglobinuria, and hemolytic anemia. Both episodes were precipitated by stressful events that may have compromised their immunocompetence. The diagnosis was confirmed by visualization of intraerythrocytic parasites on stained blood smears, polymerase chain reaction, and speciation of the Babesia by sequencing a hypervariable region of the 18S rRNA gene. One reindeer died with gross and histopathologic lesions, including pigmentary nephrosis with severe acute tubular degeneration and necrosis secondary to intravascular hemolysis. A second reindeer was successfully treated with supportive care and an antiprotozoal, imidocarb dipropionate (Imizol, 12%, Schering-Plough Animal Health, Union, New Jersey 07083, USA) at 3 mg/kg s.c. or i.m. s.i.d. on days 1, 2, 6, 9, and 21. Two other reindeer in the exhibit tested negative for Babesia by polymerase chain reaction but were treated with imidocarb dipropionate as prophylaxis while final testing results were pending. Additionally, B. odocoilei was identified in three novel asymptomatic host species within the collection: yak (Bos grunniens), muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), and markhor goat (Caprafalconeri). Due to the high morbidity and mortality associated with acute babesiosis, captive reindeer should receive tick prevention, be tested for subclinical infections in endemic areas, and receive aggressive treatment for acute infections when clinical babesiosis is suspected.

Umbilical herniorrhaphy in a juvenile Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).

An umbilical hernia was diagnosed in a 2-wk-old Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) by physical and ultrasonographic examinations. Umbilical herniorrhaphy was elected because the defect was large (approximately 7 cm long and 10 cm deep) and could potentially lead to incarceration of an intestinal loop. General anesthesia was induced with a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and diazepam and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. The hernial sac was explored and contained fibrous tissue, fat, and an intestinal loop but no adhesions. The hernial sac was resected and the body wall closed using the technique of simple apposition. Following a superficial wound infection, the surgical site healed with no further complications.