"Unhealthy = Tasty": How Does It Affect Consumers' (Un)Healthy Food Expectations?

Consumers having a strong unhealthy = tasty (UT) belief are less likely to choose healthy food even though they recognize its health benefits, because they assume healthy food to be unpalatable. The aim of this study was to profile consumers according to their UT belief and specify the strength of the belief among a demographically representative consumer group. The other aim was to investigate the effect of UT belief on expectations of two food products representing either an unhealthy or a healthy image. A total of 1537 consumers participated in the online survey. The scale-based (1-7) mean for UT belief was 3.27 and related positively to male gender and food pleasure orientation and negatively to general health interest. The results indicate that a strong UT belief correlates with positive expectations of unhealthy food and with negative expectations of healthy food. UT belief seemed to increase expected food-associated guilt, but other strong food-related attitudes (health interest with unhealthy food and pleasure orientation with healthy food) reduced this effect. In practice, understanding the relationship between UT belief and personal factors and attitudes, and the importance of this belief to food expectations can assist in finding the tools to encourage consumers towards healthier food choices.

Effects of Weak Acids on the Microbiological, Nutritional and Sensory Quality of Baltic Herring (Clupea harengus membras).

Baltic herring (Clupea harengus membras) pickled in vinegar is a common product in the Nordic countries. Other weak acids are used to cook and preserve fish in other food cultures. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of weak acids to produce safe and nutritious pickled fish products with varying sensory properties. The influence of acetic, citric, lactic, malic, and tartaric acids on the preservability and quality of pickled and marinated Baltic herring was studied by measuring microbiological quality, pH, chemical composition, and lipid oxidation and by sensory profiling. Pickling with these acids with pH levels of 3.7-4.2 resulted in pickled Baltic herring products with high microbiological quality. The results of the chemical analysis of the samples indicated that pickling and storage on marinade influenced the chemical composition of fish. The most significant changes in chemical composition were the increase in moisture and decrease in protein content of the samples during storage. Fat content decreased during the storage period in acetic acid and malic acid samples. All tested acids inhibited lipid oxidation for one month, but at three and four month time points, the content of oxidation products increased except in the samples pickled with tartaric acid. The highest oxidation level was observed in the case of citric acid and the lowest with tartaric acid. The results indicate that replacing acetic acid with other weak acids frequently used in the food industry results in pickled and marinated fish products with novel and milder sensory profiles.

The sound of silence: Presence and absence of sound affects meal duration and hedonic eating experience.

The interplay between external auditory cues in the eating environment and cognitive processes, such as distraction, may influence food intake, but how and the degree to which they do is unclear. We report an experiment designed to investigate the effects of different sonic atmospheres on meal duration, food intake and evaluations, and responses to the sonic eating environment. In a quasi-naturalistic cafeteria setting, participants (N = 248) were eating a lunch meal whilst being in one of four conditions: slow music, fast music, cafeteria noise, and silence. The results revealed that participants eating their lunch while exposed to some kind of background sound spent more time on their meal than those eating in silence. In terms of music tempo, slow music prolonged meal duration compared to fast music, but did not lead to increased intake. The appropriateness and liking of the sonic atmosphere were positively correlated with the overall pleasantness of the eating experience and liking of the food. The findings provide support for existing evidence documenting the importance of ambient sound in relation to food experiences and provide further insights into how individuals perceive and respond to sonic meal environments. Results are discussed in terms of recommendations for future design of eating environments in different contexts.

APOE Genotypes, Lipid Profiles, and Associated Clinical Markers in a Finnish Population with Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors.

INTRODUCTION: The APOE ε4 allele predisposes to high cholesterol and increases the risk for lifestyle-related diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). The aim of this study was to analyse interrelationships of APOE genotypes with lipid metabolism and lifestyle factors in middle-aged Finns among whom the CVD risk factors are common. METHODS: Participants (n = 211) were analysed for APOE ε genotypes, physiological parameters, and health- and diet-related plasma markers. Lifestyle choices were determined by a questionnaire. RESULTS: APOE genotypes ε3/ε4 and ε4/ε4 (ε4 group) represented 34.1% of the participants. Genotype ε3/ε3 (ε3 group) frequency was 54.5%. Carriers of ε2 (ε2 group; ε2/ε2, ε2/ε3 and ε2/ε4) represented 11.4%; 1.9% were of the genotype ε2/ε4. LDL and total cholesterol levels were lower (p < 0.05) in the ε2 carriers than in the ε3 or ε4 groups, while the ε3 and ε4 groups did not differ. Proportions of plasma saturated fatty acids (SFAs) were higher (p < 0.01), and omega-6 fatty acids lower (p = 0.01) in the ε2 carriers compared with the ε4 group. The ε2 carriers had a higher (p < 0.05) percentage of 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 and a lower (p < 0.05) percentage of 24:5n-3 and 24:6n-3 than individuals without the ε2 allele. CONCLUSIONS: The plasma fatty-acid profiles in the ε2 group were characterized by higher SFA and lower omega-6 fatty-acid proportions. Their lower cholesterol values indicated a lower risk for CVD compared with the ε4 group. A novel finding was that the ε2 carriers had different proportions of 22:4n-6, 22:5n-6, 24:5n-3, and 24:6n-3 than individuals without the ε2 allele. The significance of the differences in fatty-acid composition remains to be studied.

Comparing the taste-modifying properties of nanocellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose.

The taste-modifying properties of nanofibrillar cellulose (NFC) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) are compared for the first time. The samples were prepared in the form of gels, with and without added sweet and bitter taste components. As viscosity itself is known to affect taste perception, the viscosities of NFC and CMC samples were set to the same level as shear rates commonly found in the oral cavity. A trained panel of 10 assessors evaluated the bitterness and sweetness of the samples. Further, the assessors were given an opportunity to describe the samples in free words. The taste-modifying capacities of the thickening agents were at the same level when sweet compounds were added. However, CMC was better able to reduce the bitterness of quinine hydrochloride than NFC, which did not show any bitterness-reduction ability with the compound. This was unexpected, as our previous studies of NFC showed fairly high binding capacity with quinine. The open-ended responses revealed that the NFC-containing samples had an astringent sensation, while certain assessors observed a sensation of saltiness in the CMC samples. This may explain the inability of NFC to mask the bitterness of quinine hydrochloride, as astringency may act as a bitterness enhancer, while saltiness may suppress it. Both thickening agents were perceived as slightly bitter. Our study reveals the need for further assessment of the orosensory properties of NFC, particularly the magnitude and origin of its astringency, before it can be fully utilized in food industry applications.

Ethical Aspects of Genotype Disclosure: Perceptions of Participants in a Nutrigenetic Study in Finland.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to gain insight into the understanding of genetics and perceptions on the ethical issues related to genotype disclosure of the participants in a nutrigenetic study. METHODS: A close-ended questionnaire was developed based on literature and discussions among the research group members. The questionnaire contained a -total of 33 questions, which were divided into 4 categories - demographics, knowledge assessment, concerns related to participation, and opinions on disclosure of information. Majority of the participants (250 out of 281) of a nutrigenetic study, in which effect of disclosing APOE allele status on lifestyle changes was studied, completed the questionnaire online following the informed consent process. The responses from the knowledge assessment and the concern categories were transformed into knowledge and concern scales, respectively, and analysed by descriptive statistical methods. The statistical associations between the categorical variables were determined using χ2 test of independence. The relationship between the continuous variables was assessed using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient and internal consistency of questions by Cronbach's alpha. RESULTS: No correlation was observed between the level of education and knowledge scores. About 10% of the participants thought that the genetic predisposition would be stressful to them and their family members. CONCLUSIONS: Careful distribution of information before a nutrigenetic study supports understanding and reduces concerns of genetic susceptibility. In Finland, strong basic education is likely to have strengthened the trust in research process.

APOE Genotype Disclosure and Lifestyle Advice in a Randomized Intervention Study with Finnish Participants.

BACKGROUND: The APOE ε4 allele is associated with higher risks of cardiovascular diseases and Alzheimer disease than ε3 and ε2. OBJECTIVES: We studied the effectiveness of dietary and lifestyle guidance and personal genetic risk information [ε4 carrier (ε4+); ε4 noncarrier (ε4-)] as motivators for a healthier lifestyle. METHODS: A total of 188 healthy Finnish volunteers (82.4% women; mean ± SD age: 51.0 ± 5.6 y; BMI: 26.0 ± 3.6 kg/m2; total cholesterol: 5.2 ± 0.9 mmol/L) participated in our randomized intervention study. The participants were genotyped for APOE and divided into intervention (INT; INTε4+, n = 33; INTε4-, n = 57) and control groups (CTRL; CTRLε4+, n = 36; CTRLε4-, n = 62). Blood samples, measured observations, and questionnaire data were obtained at baseline and at 1 and 1.5 y. INT participants received their ε4 carrier status at baseline. Monthly Internet-based guidance based on the Finnish Dietary guidelines was provided for all. RESULTS: The proportion of SFAs in plasma over time fluctuated less in INTε4+ than in the other groups (P-interaction < 0.05; primary outcome). The lifestyle guidance increased vegetable consumption from 3.5 to 3.6 portions/d, improved the dietary fat quality score by 5.3%, increased the plasma n-3 (ω-3) FA proportion by 7.3%, and decreased the consumption of high-fat/high-sugar foods from 7.3 to 6.5 portions/wk and total- and LDL-cholesterol concentrations by 4.3% and 6.1%, respectively, in the entire participant population (P < 0.05; secondary outcome). Compared with the ε4- participants, ε4+ participants had 2.4% higher plasma n-6 (ω-6) FA, lower C-peptide (3.9 compared with 4.2 nmol/L × h) and sensitive C-reactive protein values, and decreased plasma malondialdehyde concentrations over time (P < 0.05; secondary outcome). CONCLUSIONS: Lifestyle guidance given to healthy Finnish participants yielded small but beneficial changes. The INTε4+ group did not seem markedly more responsive to the guidance than the other groups.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03794141.

Sensory and Conceptual Aspects of Ingredients of Sustainable Sources-Finnish Consumers' Opinion.

Sustainable strategies that enable development of alternative sustainable novel ingredients for food are needed to ensure adequate resources for food in the future. Determining consumer attitudes and acceptance of novel ingredients is essential for wider usage of products including these ingredients. The purpose of the study was to reveal consumers' perspectives on novel, and partly traditional but marginally utilized, ingredients to be used in regular cooking and their sensory characteristics and nutritional and environmental aspects. Consumer attitudes were obtained with two online consumer surveys. Consumer surveys revealed the most interesting ingredients. Plant-based ingredients are preferred over raw materials of animal or insect origin and these are also perceived as more pleasant. Plants were also regarded as credible, ecological, natural, healthy and nutrient-rich. Finnish consumers are not ready to adopt insects into their diet. Neither synthetic meat nor three-dimensional printed food have potential without further knowledge or experience of consumers. Findings of this research give baseline information on consumer attitudes towards novel ingredients. Further research is needed to investigate the perceived pleasantness when the potential ingredients are tasted.

Effect of supercritical CO2 plant extract and berry press cakes on stability and consumer acceptance of frozen Baltic herring (Clupea harengus membras) mince.

A promising way of processing Baltic herring, Clupea harengus membras, is turning the fish into boneless mince. However, Baltic herring is prone to lipid oxidation, which possesses a challenge for industrial applications. The aim of this work was to study the efficacy of press cakes from Finnish berries and a supercritical CO2 plant extract to limit lipid oxidation during frozen storage of Baltic herring mince and to determine the impact of these additions on consumer acceptance in a fish product. Peroxide value, formation of volatile oxidation products and loss of polyunsaturated fatty acids showed that the tested natural additives decreased oxidation to a greater or similar extent as conventional antioxidants during 10-month storage. While potential of berry press cakes and plant extracts as "green label antioxidants" was shown, consumer study indicated need for further research to reach both optimal antioxidative efficacy and sensory properties.

Taste compound - Nanocellulose interaction assessment by fluorescence indicator displacement assay.

Interactions between taste compounds and nanofibrillar cellulose were studied. For this, a new fluorescent indicator displacement method was developed. Two fluorescent indicators, namely, Calcofluor white and Congo red, were chosen because of their specific binding to cellulose and intrinsic fluorescence. Seven taste compounds with different structures were successfully measured together with nanofibrillar cellulose (NFC) and ranked according to their binding constants. The most pronounced interactions were found between quinine and NFC (1.4 × 104 M-1), whereas sucrose, aspartame and glutamic acid did not bind at all. Naringin showed moderate binding while stevioside and caffeine exhibited low binding. The comparison with microcrystalline cellulose indicates that the larger surface area of nanofibrillated cellulose enables stronger binding between the binder and macromolecules. The developed method can be further utilized to study interactions of different compound classes with nanocellulose materials in food, pharmaceutical and dye applications, using a conventional plate reader in a high-throughput manner.

Linking volatile and non-volatile compounds to sensory profiles and consumer liking of wild edible Nordic mushrooms.

Current information on the links between the chemistry and hedonic liking of edible mushrooms is scarce. In this study, 84 consumers evaluated the appearance, odor, taste, texture and overall liking of samples of Nordic edible wild mushroom species. Subsequently, multivariate models on the effects of non-volatile compounds, odor-contributing volatile compounds, sensory attributes and hedonic likings were created. The non-volatile compounds were measured with quantitative NMR. The five studied mushroom species were different in their sugar and acid contents. Three consumer clusters were found with species*cluster interactions. Correlations with sensory attributes and chemical components were found, and the multivariate models indicated predictor attributes for each consumer cluster. The results indicate that the sensory properties could be correlated to both volatile and non-volatile compounds, there are consumer clusters with differing likings as regards mushrooms, and these clusters are heterogenic groups with no simple factors such as age explaining their liking scores.

Information Provided to Consumers about Direct-to-Consumer Nutrigenetic Testing.

BACKGROUND: Nutrigenetic tests are often considered to be less serious compared to other health-related genetic tests, although they share similar ethical concerns. Nutrigenetic tests are mainly available through direct-to-consumer genetic testing (DTC GT) and increasing in popularity. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the contents of nutrigenetic DTC GT websites with respect to the adequacy of the information provided to support a well-informed decision of purchasing the tests. METHODS: The websites of DTC GT companies selling nutrigenetic tests that could be ordered online without involving any healthcare professional, available in English, marketing tests in Europe, the USA, Australia, or Canada, and accessible from Finland were included in the study (n = 38). Quantitative and qualitative content analyses of the websites were carried out with the help of a codebook. RESULTS: Of the 38 websites, 8 included a clearly identifiable and easy-to-find information section about genetics. The quality and contents of these sections were often insufficient and/or misleading. Fourteen websites had specific sections discussing the risks related to GT, and on 13 signed informed consent was requested for GT. Furthermore, only 2 of the companies offered any kind of pretest consultation and 13 offered mostly separately charged posttest consultation. The complex structure of the websites made it difficult to find all key information, with many important aspects buried in legal documents, which were challenging to comprehend even for a professional. CONCLUSION: The structure of the websites and the amount and quality of the content therein do not support a well-informed decision.

Odor-contributing volatile compounds of wild edible Nordic mushrooms analyzed with HS-SPME-GC-MS and HS-SPME-GC-O/FID.

Although Nordic wild edible mushrooms offer a wide range of different odors their scientific examination has been scarce. The aim of this study was to characterize the aroma compounds of four Finnish wild mushroom species with trained assessors using gas chromatography-olfactometry as well as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Headspace volatiles were extracted from sous vide cooked mushroom samples (Boletus edulis, Lactarius camphoratus, Cantharellus cibarius and Craterellus tubaeformis) using solid-phase microextraction. Odor-contributing compounds were measured with two columns of differing polarity using the detection frequency method. Compounds were identified based on reference compounds, linear retention indices, odor descriptions, and mass spectrometry. Both the volatile compound profiles and the aromagrams were distinct with characteristic compounds for each species. The results demonstrate that especially saturated and unsaturated aldehydes and ketones contribute to the odor of the studied wild mushrooms. This thorough comparison also indicates compounds linked to the sensory properties of mushrooms.

The effect of cooking on umami compounds in wild and cultivated mushrooms.

The effect of cooking on the taste compounds of five mushroom species Agaricus bisporus, Lactarius trivialis, Cantharellus cibarius, Cantharellus tubaeformis and Suillus variegatus were assessed with a special focus on the compounds responsible for the umami taste. Liquid chromatography was used to analyse free amino acids (FAAs) and 5'-nucleotides from fresh and sous vide (SV) cooked mushroom samples and cooking juice. The SV technique enabled analysis of entire mushrooms, including the liquid released during cooking. FAA content decreased when cooking temperature increased, indicating their further chemical reactions. S. variegatus contained highest concentrations of FAAs in analysed wild mushrooms. The umami-enhancing nucleotide 5'-GMP was detected only in cooked samples, concentration being likely dependent on enzymatic activity. The highest concentration of 5'-GMP was detected in cooked L. trivialis samples (17 mg/100 g fw). To our knowledge, the analysed taste compounds of L. trivialis and S. variegatus are documented for the first time.

Effect of component quality on sensory characteristics of a fish soup.

The foodservice industry is a highly competitive branch where customer satisfaction and loyalty is dependent on the price and the quality of the food. To improve cost competitiveness, instead of fresh ingredients, more preprocessed items are used as components in dishes. This may impair the perceived product quality, and thus potentially decrease customer satisfaction. The effects of the component quality on a single dish were tested by serving fish soup in a consumer study (n = 205), and by serving the dish to an in-house panel (n = 17) using a modified check-all-that-apply method. The variable used for the quality of the fish and vegetable components was a previously unprocessed/fresh component being compared to a processed. This study showed that in a modular dish, each component had an effect on the perceived quality of the dish. When replacing a preprocessed component with a fresh one, the perceived pleasantness increased to a higher level. The fish as the main dish component had the largest effect on the quality. Fresh fish has the ability to enhance the taste of soup, even with frozen vegetables. The results from this study indicate that the effect of freshness can also be perceived in the cooked product.

Sensory properties of Nordic edible mushrooms.

Edible mushrooms are a global food with a history of consumption spanning several millennia. However, studies utilizing modern sensory methods on mushrooms are still scarce. In this study, the sensory properties of Nordic edible mushrooms were analyzed by two methods. In the sensory profile, sous vide processed wild mushroom species Cantharellus cibarius, Craterellus tubaeformis, Boletus edulis, and Lactarius camphoratus were studied with cultivated Agaricus bisporus as a control species. The sensory profile consisted of 18 descriptors, and the 5 mushrooms differed from each other in all of them. Only B. edulis and A. bisporus were linked to typical mushroom-like odor. In projective mapping, consumers evaluated blanched wild C. cibarius, C. tubaeformis and Suillus variegatus as well as cultivated Lentinula edodes and both blanched and fresh A. bisporus based on odor and on flavor. The consumers intuitively grouped the samples into three groups: wild, fresh cultivated and processed cultivated mushrooms. Wild mushrooms had a high odor intensity and various odor descriptions but a low flavor intensity. Cultivated mushrooms had opposite descriptions. Both tests showed differences in the sensory descriptors between the cultivated and wild mushrooms with the former linked to typical 'mushroom', indicating the importance and need for descriptive profiles for different mushroom types.

The effect of gender, age and product type on the origin induced food product experience among young consumers in Finland.

Locally produced and sourced food products are gaining popularity among consumers. The effect of the expectations induced by the origin of the food was studied with 1491 consumers in two separate studies among different age groups. In order to test the consumer response to the product origin neutral, domestic, and local conditions were used. Consumers evaluated the product's pleasantness, their probability to choose it, the overall quality, and their willingness to pay. To gather information on whether the phenomenon was consistent, independent from the product category, three different types of products were tested (meat, bread, and vegetables). Our results show that a closer origin does not necessarily produce a positive response, but that there are several moderating factors such as gender, age, and product type. Female university students responded equally to domestic and local origins in the case of bread, but for meat products, only those of local origin induced a positive reaction. In this study population, the male respondents only reacted to a local origin in the case of bread, while domestic meat products provided similar results to local origins. Among young men consumers in the 7th-9th grades responded to the local origin of vegetables positively, while others among the youngest consumers, the origin did not induce a significant effect. The results indicate that even when the product is not appealing itself, locality can still increase the perceived quality.

Free amino acids and 5'-nucleotides in Finnish forest mushrooms.

Edible mushrooms are valued because of their umami taste and good nutritional values. Free amino acids, 5'-nucleotides and nucleosides were analyzed from four Nordic forest mushroom species (Lactarius camphoratus, Boletus edulis, Cantharellus cibarius, Craterellus tubaeformis) using high precision liquid chromatography analysis. To our knowledge, these taste components were studied for the first time from Craterellus tubaeformis and Lactarius camphoratus. The focus was on the umami amino acids and 5'-nucleotides. The free amino acid and 5'-nucleotide/nucleoside contents of studied species differed from each other. In all studied samples, umami amino acids were among five major free amino acids. The highest concentration of umami amino acids was on L. camphoratus whereas B. edulis had the highest content of sweet amino acids and C. cibarius had the highest content of bitter amino acids. The content of umami enhancing 5'-nucleotides were low in all studied species.

A Long-Term Follow-Up Study on Disclosing Genetic Risk Information (APOE) to Promote Healthy Lifestyles in Finland.

AIM: This observational follow-up study was designed to assess the long-term behavioural and clinical effects of receiving personal genetic risk information. The information disclosed was the carrier status of the apolipoprotein E (APOE)alleles, which differentially contribute to the genetic risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and Alzheimer's disease. METHODS: This study forms a continuum with a previous 1-year intervention (2010-2011) monitoring the effects of disclosing the carrier status of the APOE ε4risk allele. The follow-up measurements, performed 5.5 years post-intervention, included clinical measurements (blood values and anthropomorphic parameters) and questionnaires (psychological and behavioural factors). The participants were healthy adult volunteers, aged 26-73 years (n = 70) who had participated in the previous intervention, and received their APOE allele status either at the beginning (former test group) or the end of the intervention (former control group). RESULTS: Personal genetic risk information resulted in a moderate health-conscious change in diet and had a slight positive long-term effect on clinical factors, particularly the serum lipids. These improvements were subsequent to the disclosure of genetic information and occurred mainly in the APOE ε4-positive members of the former control group, that is, those who were at increased genetic risk for CVD but had not been informed of their status before the end of the intervention. In contrast, changes in the values and health behaviour of the APOE ε4-positive individuals in the former test group, who had already changed their health behaviour during the previous intervention as a result of being informed of their carrier status, varied more: some continued to improve, some remained at their previously improved level, and some relapsed slightly. Both groups had nonetheless displayed an improvement immediately subsequent to the disclosure of their personal genetic risk. CONCLUSION: Receiving information on increased personal genetic risk (carrier status of APOE ε4)for CVD provided the motivation for improvements in health behaviour. The resulting changes, while modest, in most cases remained visible even after a number of years.

Effect of Salt Reduction on Consumer Acceptance and Sensory Quality of Food.

Reducing salt (NaCl) intake is an important public health target. The food industry and catering services are searching for means to reduce the salt content in their products. This review focuses on options for salt reduction in foods and the sensory evaluation of salt-reduced foods. Simple salt reduction, mineral salts and flavor enhancers/modifiers (e.g., umami compounds) are common options for salt reduction. In addition, the modification of food texture and odor-taste interactions may contribute to enhanced salty taste perception. Maintaining consumer acceptance of the products is a challenge, and recent examples of the consumer perception of salt-reduced foods are presented.