Scaffolding Protein Connector Enhancer of Kinase Suppressor of Ras 1 (CNKSR1) Regulates MAPK Inhibition Responsiveness in Pancreas Cancer via Crosstalk with AKT Signaling.

Combinatorial molecular therapy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) has yielded largely disappointing results in clinical testing to-date as a multitude of adaptive resistance mechanisms is making selection of patients via molecular markers that capture essential, intersecting signaling routes challenging. Here, we report the scaffolding protein connector enhancer of kinase suppressor of Ras 1 (CNKSR1) as mediator of resistance to MAPK (MEK) inhibition. MEK inhibition in CNKSR1high cancer cells induces translocation of CNKSR1 to the plasma membrane where the scaffolding protein interacts with and stabilizes the phosphorylated form of AKT. CNKSR1-mediated AKT activation following MEK inhibition was associated with increased cellular p-PRAS40 levels and reduced nuclear translocation and cellular levels of FoxO1, a negative regulator of AKT signaling. In clinical PDAC specimens, high cytoplasmatic CNKSR1 levels correlated with increased cellular phospho-AKT and mTOR levels. Pharmacological co-blockade of AKT and MEK ranked top in induced synergies with MEK inhibition in CNKSR1high pancreas cancer cells among other inhibitor combinations targeting known CNKSR1 signaling. In vivo, CNKSR1high pancreatic tumors treated with AKT and MEK inhibitors showed improved outcome in the combination arm compared with single-agent treatment, an effect not observed in CNKSR1low models.Our results identify CNKSR1 as regulator of adaptive resistance to MEK inhibition by promoting crosstalk to AKT signaling via a scaffolding function for the phosphorylated form of AKT. CNSKR1 expression might be a possible molecular marker to enrich patients for future AKT-MEK inhibitor precision medicine studies. IMPLICATIONS: The CNKSR1 scaffold, identified within an RNAi screen as a novel mediator of resistance to MEK inhibition in pancreas cancer, connects the MAPK pathway and AKT signaling and may be adopted as a biomarker to select patients for combined MEK AKT blockade.

Discovery and Optimization of Pyrrolopyrimidine Derivatives as Selective Disruptors of the Perinucleolar Compartment, a Marker of Tumor Progression toward Metastasis.

The perinucleolar compartment (PNC) is a dynamic subnuclear body found at the periphery of the nucleolus. The PNC is enriched with RNA transcripts and RNA-binding proteins, reflecting different states of genome organization. PNC prevalence positively correlates with cancer progression and metastatic capacity, making it a useful marker for metastatic cancer progression. A high-throughput, high-content assay was developed to identify novel small molecules that selectively reduce PNC prevalence in cancer cells. We identified and further optimized a pyrrolopyrimidine series able to reduce PNC prevalence in PC3M cancer cells at submicromolar concentrations without affecting cell viability. Structure-activity relationship exploration of the structural elements necessary for activity resulted in the discovery of several potent compounds. Analysis of in vitro drug-like properties led to the discovery of the bioavailable analogue, metarrestin, which has shown potent antimetastatic activity with improved survival in rodent models and is currently being evaluated in a first-in-human phase 1 clinical trial.

Design and Discovery of N-(3-(2-(2-Hydroxyethoxy)-6-morpholinopyridin-4-yl)-4-methylphenyl)-2-(trifluoromethyl)isonicotinamide, a Selective, Efficacious, and Well-Tolerated RAF Inhibitor Targeting RAS Mutant Cancers: The Path to the Clinic.

Direct pharmacological inhibition of RAS has remained elusive, and efforts to target CRAF have been challenging due to the complex nature of RAF signaling, downstream of activated RAS, and the poor overall kinase selectivity of putative RAF inhibitors. Herein, we describe 15 (LXH254, Aversa, R.; et al. Int. Patent WO2014151616A1, 2014), a selective B/C RAF inhibitor, which was developed by focusing on drug-like properties and selectivity. Our previous tool compound, 3 (RAF709; Nishiguchi, G. A.; et al. J. Med. Chem. 2017, 60, 4969), was potent, selective, efficacious, and well tolerated in preclinical models, but the high human intrinsic clearance precluded further development and prompted further investigation of close analogues. A structure-based approach led to a pyridine series with an alcohol side chain that could interact with the DFG loop and significantly improved cell potency. Further mitigation of human intrinsic clearance and time-dependent inhibition led to the discovery of 15. Due to its excellent properties, it was progressed through toxicology studies and is being tested in phase 1 clinical trials.

Target Deconvolution of a Multikinase Inhibitor with Antimetastatic Properties Identifies TAOK3 as a Key Contributor to a Cancer Stem Cell-Like Phenotype.

Pancreatic cancer remains an incurable condition. Its progression is driven, in part, by subsets of cancer cells that evade the cytotoxic effects of conventional chemotherapies. These cells are often low-cycling, multidrug resistant, and adopt a stem cell-like phenotype consistent with the concept of cancer stem cells (CSC). To identify drugs impacting on tumor-promoting CSCs, we performed a differential high-throughput drug screen in pancreatic cancer cells cultured in traditional (2D) monolayers versus three-dimensional (3D) spheroids which replicate key elements of the CSC model. Among the agents capable of killing cells cultured in both formats was a 1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-amine-based inhibitor of IL2-inducible T-cell kinase (ITK; NCGC00188382, inhibitor #1) that effectively mediated growth inhibition and induction of apoptosis in vitro, and suppressed cancer progression and metastasis formation in vivo An examination of this agent's polypharmacology via in vitro and in situ phosphoproteomic profiling demonstrated an activity profile enriched for mediators involved in DNA damage repair. Included was a strong inhibitory potential versus the thousand-and-one amino acid kinase 3 (TAOK3), CDK7, and aurora B kinases. We found that cells grown under CSC-enriching spheroid conditions are selectively dependent on TAOK3 signaling. Loss of TAOK3 decreases colony formation, expression of stem cell markers, and sensitizes spheroids to the genotoxic effect of gemcitabine, whereas overexpression of TAOK3 increases stem cell traits including tumor initiation and metastasis formation. By inactivating multiple components of the cell-cycle machinery in concert with the downregulation of key CSC signatures, inhibitor #1 defines a distinctive strategy for targeting pancreatic cancer cell populations.

Mutation Profiles in Glioblastoma 3D Oncospheres Modulate Drug Efficacy.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a lethal brain cancer with a median survival time of approximately 15 months following treatment. Common in vitro GBM models for drug screening are adherent and do not recapitulate the features of human GBM in vivo. Here we report the genomic characterization of nine patient-derived, spheroid GBM cell lines that recapitulate human GBM characteristics in orthotopic xenograft models. Genomic sequencing revealed that the spheroid lines contain alterations in GBM driver genes such as PTEN, CDKN2A, and NF1. Two spheroid cell lines, JHH-136 and JHH-520, were utilized in a high-throughput drug screen for cell viability using a 1912-member compound library. Drug mechanisms that were cytotoxic in both cell lines were Hsp90 and proteasome inhibitors. JHH-136 was uniquely sensitive to topoisomerase 1 inhibitors, while JHH-520 was uniquely sensitive to Mek inhibitors. Drug combination screening revealed that PI3 kinase inhibitors combined with Mek or proteasome inhibitors were synergistic. However, animal studies to test these drug combinations in vivo revealed that Mek inhibition alone was superior to the combination treatments. These data show that these GBM spheroid lines are amenable to high-throughput drug screening and that this dataset may deliver promising therapeutic leads for future GBM preclinical studies.

Antitumor Properties of RAF709, a Highly Selective and Potent Inhibitor of RAF Kinase Dimers, in Tumors Driven by Mutant RAS or BRAF.

Resistance to the RAF inhibitor vemurafenib arises commonly in melanomas driven by the activated BRAF oncogene. Here, we report antitumor properties of RAF709, a novel ATP-competitive kinase inhibitor with high potency and selectivity against RAF kinases. RAF709 exhibited a mode of RAF inhibition distinct from RAF monomer inhibitors such as vemurafenib, showing equal activity against both RAF monomers and dimers. As a result, RAF709 inhibited MAPK signaling activity in tumor models harboring either BRAFV600 alterations or mutant N- and KRAS-driven signaling, with minimal paradoxical activation of wild-type RAF. In cell lines and murine xenograft models, RAF709 demonstrated selective antitumor activity in tumor cells harboring BRAF or RAS mutations compared with cells with wild-type BRAF and RAS genes. RAF709 demonstrated a direct pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship in in vivo tumor models harboring KRAS mutation. Furthermore, RAF709 elicited regression of primary human tumor-derived xenograft models with BRAF, NRAS, or KRAS mutations with excellent tolerability. Our results support further development of inhibitors like RAF709, which represents a next-generation RAF inhibitor with unique biochemical and cellular properties that enables antitumor activities in RAS-mutant tumors.Significance: In an effort to develop RAF inhibitors with the appropriate pharmacological properties to treat RAS mutant tumors, RAF709, a compound with potency, selectivity, and in vivo properties, was developed that will allow preclinical therapeutic hypothesis testing, but also provide an excellent probe to further unravel the complexities of RAF kinase signaling. Cancer Res; 78(6); 1537-48. ©2018 AACR.

Design and Discovery of N-(2-Methyl-5'-morpholino-6'-((tetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)oxy)-[3,3'-bipyridin]-5-yl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)benzamide (RAF709): A Potent, Selective, and Efficacious RAF Inhibitor Targeting RAS Mutant Cancers.

RAS oncogenes have been implicated in >30% of human cancers, all representing high unmet medical need. The exquisite dependency on CRAF kinase in KRAS mutant tumors has been established in genetically engineered mouse models and human tumor cells. To date, many small molecule approaches are under investigation to target CRAF, yet kinase-selective and cellular potent inhibitors remain challenging to identify. Herein, we describe 14 (RAF709) [ Aversa , Biaryl amide compounds as kinase inhibitors and their preparation . WO 2014151616, 2014 ], a selective B/C RAF inhibitor, which was developed through a hypothesis-driven approach focusing on drug-like properties. A key challenge encountered in the medicinal chemistry campaign was maintaining a balance between good solubility and potent cellular activity (suppression of pMEK and proliferation) in KRAS mutant tumor cell lines. We investigated the small molecule crystal structure of lead molecule 7 and hypothesized that disruption of the crystal packing would improve solubility, which led to a change from N-methylpyridone to a tetrahydropyranyl oxy-pyridine derivative. 14 proved to be soluble, kinase selective, and efficacious in a KRAS mutant xenograft model.

SU9516 Increases α7ß1 Integrin and Ameliorates Disease Progression in the mdx Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a fatal muscle disease caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene, resulting in a complete loss of the dystrophin protein. Dystrophin is a critical component of the dystrophin glycoprotein complex (DGC), which links laminin in the extracellular matrix to the actin cytoskeleton within myofibers and provides resistance to shear stresses during muscle activity. Loss of dystrophin in DMD patients results in a fragile sarcolemma prone to contraction-induced muscle damage. The α7ß1 integrin is a laminin receptor protein complex in skeletal and cardiac muscle and a major modifier of disease progression in DMD. In a muscle cell-based screen for α7 integrin transcriptional enhancers, we identified a small molecule, SU9516, that promoted increased α7ß1 integrin expression. Here we show that SU9516 leads to increased α7B integrin in murine C2C12 and human DMD patient myogenic cell lines. Oral administration of SU9516 in the mdx mouse model of DMD increased α7ß1 integrin in skeletal muscle, ameliorated pathology, and improved muscle function. We show that these improvements are mediated through SU9516 inhibitory actions on the p65-NF-κB pro-inflammatory and Ste20-related proline alanine rich kinase (SPAK)/OSR1 signaling pathways. This study identifies a first in-class α7 integrin-enhancing small-molecule compound with potential for the treatment of DMD.

Large-scale pharmacological profiling of 3D tumor models of cancer cells.

The discovery of chemotherapeutic agents for the treatment of cancer commonly uses cell proliferation assays in which cells grow as two-dimensional (2D) monolayers. Compounds identified using 2D monolayer assays often fail to advance during clinical development, most likely because these assays do not reproduce the cellular complexity of tumors and their microenvironment in vivo. The use of three-dimensional (3D) cellular systems have been explored as enabling more predictive in vitro tumor models for drug discovery. To date, small-scale screens have demonstrated that pharmacological responses tend to differ between 2D and 3D cancer cell growth models. However, the limited scope of screens using 3D models has not provided a clear delineation of the cellular pathways and processes that differentially regulate cell survival and death in the different in vitro tumor models. Here we sought to further understand the differences in pharmacological responses between cancer tumor cells grown in different conditions by profiling a large collection of 1912 chemotherapeutic agents. We compared pharmacological responses obtained from cells cultured in traditional 2D monolayer conditions with those responses obtained from cells forming spheres versus cells already in 3D spheres. The target annotation of the compound library screened enabled the identification of those key cellular pathways and processes that when modulated by drugs induced cell death in all growth conditions or selectively in the different cell growth models. In addition, we also show that many of the compounds targeting these key cellular functions can be combined to produce synergistic cytotoxic effects, which in many cases differ in the magnitude of their synergism depending on the cellular model and cell type. The results from this work provide a high-throughput screening framework to profile the responses of drugs both as single agents and in pairwise combinations in 3D sphere models of cancer cells.

Ranking Differential Drug Activities from Dose-Response Synthetic Lethality Screens.

Synthetic lethal screens are used to discover new combination treatments for cancer. In traditional high-throughput synthetic lethal screens, compounds are tested at a single dose, and hit selection is based on threshold activity values from the variance of the efficacy of the compounds tested. The limitation of the single-dose screening for synthetic lethal screens is that it does not allow for the robust detection of differential activities from compound collections with a broad range of potencies and efficacies. There is therefore a need to develop screening approaches that enable the identification of compounds with synthetic lethal effects based on changes in both potency and efficacy. Here we describe the implementation of a dose response-based synthetic lethal screen to find drugs that enhance or mitigate the cytotoxic effect of an immunotoxin protein (HA22). We developed a data analysis framework for the selection of compounds with enhancing or mitigating cytotoxic activities based on the use of dose-response parameters. The data analysis framework includes an ensemble ranking approach that allows the use of multiple dose-response parameters in a nonparametric fashion. Quantitative high-throughput screening (HTS) enables the identification of compounds with synthetic lethal activity not identified by single-dose HTS.

Aurora B kinase is a potent and selective target in MYCN-driven neuroblastoma.

Despite advances in multimodal treatment, neuroblastoma (NB) is often fatal for children with high-risk disease and many survivors need to cope with long-term side effects from high-dose chemotherapy and radiation. To identify new therapeutic targets, we performed an siRNA screen of the druggable genome combined with a small molecule screen of 465 compounds targeting 39 different mechanisms of actions in four NB cell lines. We identified 58 genes as targets, including AURKB, in at least one cell line. In the drug screen, aurora kinase inhibitors (nine molecules) and in particular the AURKB-selective compound, barasertib, were the most discriminatory with regard to sensitivity for MYCN-amplified cell lines. In an expanded panel of ten NB cell lines, those with MYCN-amplification and wild-type TP53 were the most sensitive to low nanomolar concentrations of barasertib. Inhibition of the AURKB kinase activity resulted in decreased phosphorylation of the known target, histone H3, and upregulation of TP53 in MYCN-amplified, TP53 wild-type cells. However, both wild-type and TP53 mutant MYCN-amplified cell lines arrested in G2/M phase upon AURKB inhibition. Additionally, barasertib induced endoreduplication and apoptosis. Treatment of MYCN-amplified/TP53 wild-type neuroblastoma xenografts resulted in profound growth inhibition and tumor regression. Therefore, aurora B kinase inhibition is highly effective in aggressive neuroblastoma and warrants further investigation in clinical trials.

Selective targeting of JAK/STAT signaling is potentiated by Bcl-xL blockade in IL-2-dependent adult T-cell leukemia.

Adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) develops in individuals infected with human T-cell lymphotropic virus-1 (HTLV-1). Presently there is no curative therapy for ATL. HTLV-1-encoded protein Tax (transactivator from the X-gene region) up-regulates Bcl-xL (B-cell lymphoma-extra large) expression and activates interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-9, and IL-15 autocrine/paracrine systems, resulting in amplified JAK/STAT signaling. Inhibition of JAK signaling reduces cytokine-dependent ex vivo proliferation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from ATL patients in smoldering/chronic stages. Currently, two JAK inhibitors are approved for human use. In this study, we examined activity of multiple JAK inhibitors in ATL cell lines. The selective JAK inhibitor ruxolitinib was examined in a high-throughput matrix screen combined with >450 potential therapeutic agents, and Bcl-2/Bcl-xL inhibitor navitoclax was identified as a strong candidate for multicomponent therapy. The combination was noted to strongly activate BAX (Bcl-2-associated X protein), effect mitochondrial depolarization, and increase caspase 3/7 activities that lead to cleavage of PARP (poly ADP ribose polymerase) and Mcl-1 (myeloid cell leukemia 1). Ruxolitinib and navitoclax independently demonstrated modest antitumor efficacy, whereas the combination dramatically lowered tumor burden and prolonged survival in an ATL murine model. This combination strongly blocked ex vivo proliferation of five ATL patients' PBMCs. These studies provide support for a therapeutic trial in patients with smoldering/chronic ATL using a drug combination that inhibits JAK signaling and antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL.

High-throughput matrix screening identifies synergistic and antagonistic antimalarial drug combinations.

Drug resistance in Plasmodium parasites is a constant threat. Novel therapeutics, especially new drug combinations, must be identified at a faster rate. In response to the urgent need for new antimalarial drug combinations we screened a large collection of approved and investigational drugs, tested 13,910 drug pairs, and identified many promising antimalarial drug combinations. The activity of known antimalarial drug regimens was confirmed and a myriad of new classes of positively interacting drug pairings were discovered. Network and clustering analyses reinforced established mechanistic relationships for known drug combinations and identified several novel mechanistic hypotheses. From eleven screens comprising >4,600 combinations per parasite strain (including duplicates) we further investigated interactions between approved antimalarials, calcium homeostasis modulators, and inhibitors of phosphatidylinositide 3-kinases (PI3K) and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). These studies highlight important targets and pathways and provide promising leads for clinically actionable antimalarial therapy.

Blockade of oncogenic IκB kinase activity in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma by bromodomain and extraterminal domain protein inhibitors.

In the activated B-cell-like (ABC) subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), NF-κB activity is essential for viability of the malignant cells and is sustained by constitutive activity of IκB kinase (IKK) in the cytoplasm. Here, we report an unexpected role for the bromodomain and extraterminal domain (BET) proteins BRD2 and BRD4 in maintaining oncogenic IKK activity in ABC DLBCL. IKK activity was reduced by small molecules targeting BET proteins as well as by genetic knockdown of BRD2 and BRD4 expression, thereby inhibiting downstream NF-κB-driven transcriptional programs and killing ABC DLBCL cells. Using a high-throughput platform to screen for drug-drug synergy, we observed that the BET inhibitor JQ1 combined favorably with multiple drugs targeting B-cell receptor signaling, one pathway that activates IKK in ABC DLBCL. The BTK kinase inhibitor ibrutinib, which is in clinical development for the treatment of ABC DLBCL, synergized strongly with BET inhibitors in killing ABC DLBCL cells in vitro and in a xenograft mouse model. These findings provide a mechanistic basis for the clinical development of BET protein inhibitors in ABC DLBCL, particularly in combination with other modulators of oncogenic IKK signaling.

A high throughput screening assay system for the identification of small molecule inhibitors of gsp.

Mis-sense mutations in the α-subunit of the G-protein, Gsα, cause fibrous dysplasia of bone/McCune-Albright syndrome. The biochemical outcome of these mutations is constitutively active Gsα and increased levels of cAMP. The aim of this study was to develop an assay system that would allow the identification of small molecule inhibitors specific for the mutant Gsα protein, the so-called gsp oncogene. Commercially available Chinese hamster ovary cells were stably transfected with either wild-type (WT) or mutant Gsα proteins (R201C and R201H). Stable cell lines with equivalent transfected Gsα protein expression that had relatively lower (WT) or higher (R201C and R201H) cAMP levels were generated. These cell lines were used to develop a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based cAMP assay in 1536-well microplate format for high throughput screening of small molecule libraries. A small molecule library of 343,768 compounds was screened to identify modulators of gsp activity. A total of 1,356 compounds with inhibitory activity were initially identified and reconfirmed when tested in concentration dose responses. Six hundred eighty-six molecules were selected for further analysis after removing cytotoxic compounds and those that were active in forskolin-induced WT cells. These molecules were grouped by potency, efficacy, and structural similarities to yield 22 clusters with more than 5 of structurally similar members and 144 singleton molecules. Seven chemotypes of the major clusters were identified for further testing and analyses.

High-throughput combinatorial screening identifies drugs that cooperate with ibrutinib to kill activated B-cell-like diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cells.

The clinical development of drug combinations is typically achieved through trial-and-error or via insight gained through a detailed molecular understanding of dysregulated signaling pathways in a specific cancer type. Unbiased small-molecule combination (matrix) screening represents a high-throughput means to explore hundreds and even thousands of drug-drug pairs for potential investigation and translation. Here, we describe a high-throughput screening platform capable of testing compounds in pairwise matrix blocks for the rapid and systematic identification of synergistic, additive, and antagonistic drug combinations. We use this platform to define potential therapeutic combinations for the activated B-cell-like subtype (ABC) of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). We identify drugs with synergy, additivity, and antagonism with the Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor ibrutinib, which targets the chronic active B-cell receptor signaling that characterizes ABC DLBCL. Ibrutinib interacted favorably with a wide range of compounds, including inhibitors of the PI3K-AKT-mammalian target of rapamycin signaling cascade, other B-cell receptor pathway inhibitors, Bcl-2 family inhibitors, and several components of chemotherapy that is the standard of care for DLBCL.