Exploring the Health Benefits of Boletus aereus Polysaccharides: Extraction, Structural Characterization, and Antiproliferative Properties against Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas (NHLs).

Boletus aereus Fr. ex Bull. stands out as a delectable edible mushroom with high nutritional and medicinal values, featuring polysaccharides as its primary nutrient composition. In our continuous exploration of its beneficial substances, a novel polysaccharide (BAPN-1) with a molecular weight of 2279 kDa was prepared. It was identified as a glucan with a backbone composed of the residues →4)-α-Glcp-(1→ and →4,6)-α-Glcp-(1→ connected in a proportion of 5:1 and a ß-Glcp-(1→ side residue attached at C6 of the →4,6)-α-Glcp-(1→ residue. Biologically, BAPN-1 exhibited broad-spectrum antiproliferative activities against various NHL cells, including HuT-78, OCI-LY1, OCI-LY18, Jurkat, RL, and Karpas-299, with IC50 values of 0.73, 1.21, 3.18, 1.52, 3.34, and 4.25 mg/mL, respectively. Additionally, BAPN-1 significantly induced cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase and caused apoptosis of NHL cells. Mechanistically, bulk RNA sequencing and Western blot analysis revealed that BAPN-1 could upregulate cyclin B1 and enhance cleaved caspase-9 expression through the inhibition of FGFR3 and RAF-MEK-ERK signaling pathways. This work supports the improved utilization of B. aereus in high-value health products.

Cyanobacterial and microalgae polymers: antiviral activity and applications.

At the end of 2019, the world witnessed the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. As an aggressive viral infection, the entire world remained attentive to new discoveries about the SARS-CoV-2 virus and its effects in the human body. The search for new antivirals capable of preventing and/or controlling the infection became one of the main goals of research during this time. New biocompounds from marine sources, especially microalgae and cyanobacteria, with pharmacological benefits, such as anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory and antiviral attracted particular interest. Polysaccharides (PS) and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), especially those containing sulfated groups in their structure, have potential antiviral activity against several types of viruses including HIV-1, herpes simplex virus type 1, and SARS-CoV-2. We review the main characteristics of PS and EPS with antiviral activity, the mechanisms of action, and the different extraction methodologies from microalgae and cyanobacteria biomass.

Extraction, purification, structural characterization, and bioactivities of the genus Rhodiola L. polysaccharides: A review.

The genus Rhodiola L., an integral part of traditional Chinese medicine and Tibetan medicine in China, exhibits a broad spectrum of applications. This genus contains key compounds such as ginsenosides, polysaccharides, and flavonoids, which possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycaemic, immune-enhancing, and anti-hypoxic properties. As a vital raw material, Rhodiola L. contributes to twenty-four kinds of Chinese patent medicines and 481 health food products in China, finding extensive application in the health food sector. Recently, polysaccharides have emerged as a focal point in natural product research, with applications spanning the medicine, food, and materials sectors. Despite this, a comprehensive and systematic review of polysaccharides from the genus Rhodiola L. polysaccharides (TGRPs) is warranted. This study undertakes a systematic review of both domestic and international literature, assessing the research advancements and chemical functional values of polysaccharides derived from Rhodiola rosea. It involves the isolation, purification, and identification of a variety of homogeneous polysaccharides, followed by a detailed analysis of their chemical structures, pharmacological activities, and molecular mechanisms, structure-activity relationship (SAR) of TGRPs. The discussion includes the influence of molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, and glycosidic bonds on their biological activities, such as sulfation and carboxymethylation et al. Such analyses are crucial for deepening the understanding of Rhodiola rosea and for fostering the development and exploitation of TGRPs, offering a reference point for further investigations into TGRPs and their resource utilization.

Postbiotics in inflammatory bowel disease: efficacy, mechanism, and therapeutic implications.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is one of the most challenging diseases in the 21st century, and more than 10 million people around the world suffer from IBD. Because of the limitations and adverse effects associated with conventional IBD therapies, there has been increased scientific interest in microbial-derived biomolecules, known as postbiotics. Postbiotics are defined as the preparation of inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confer a health benefit on the host, comprising inactivated microbial cells, cell fractions, metabolites, etc. Postbiotics have shown potential in enhancing IBD treatment by reducing inflammation, modulating the immune system, stabilizing intestinal flora and maintaining the integrity of intestinal barriers. Consequently, they are considered promising adjunctive therapies for IBD. Recent studies indicate that postbiotics offer distinctive advantages, including spanning clinical (safe origin), technological (easy for storage and transportation) and economic (reduced production costs) dimensions, rendering them suitable for widespread applications in functional food/pharmaceutical. This review offers a comprehensive overview of the definition, classification and applications of postbiotics, with an emphasis on their biological activity in both the prevention and treatment of IBD. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Hypolipidemic Effects of Mesona chinensis Benth Polysaccharides with Different Structures and Molecular Weights.

Four novel Mesona chinensis Benth polysaccharides were isolated using aqueous alcohol precipitation. Their molecular weights were determined using high-performance gel permeation chromatography: MA1 (2.3 kDa), MA2 (80.5 kDa), MA3 (180.9 kDa), and MA4 (635.2 kDa), and their compositions were analyzed using GC-MS. The polysaccharides were mainly D-glucose, D-galactose, L-Rhamnose, D-arabinose, D-xylose, and D-mannose. The structural characteristics were further analyzed using infrared spectrophotometry and were identified as a type of pyrrhic sugar. An insulin-induced insulin resistance model of HepG2 cells and oleic acid-induced fat accumulation model of insulin were established to evaluate the hypolipidemic effects. Three Bacteroides spp. [Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (BT), B. ovatus (BO), and B. cellulosilyticus (BC)] that were negatively correlated with lipid-lowering activity were used to evaluate the lipid-lowering activity of polysaccharides. The Bacteroides metabolites of MA1 and MA2 exhibited hypolipidemic effects and antioxidant activities and could potentially be used as lipid-lowering supplements.

Hypolipidemic effect of polysaccharide from Sargassum fusiforme and its ultrasonic degraded polysaccharide on zebrafish fed high-fat diet.

Sargassum fusiforme is a brown seaweed that grows abundantly along the rocky coastlines of Asian countries. The polysaccharides derived from Sargassum fusiforme (SFPS) have received much interest due to their various bioactivities, such as hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, and antioxidant activities. In this study, we extracted and purified SFPS, and obtained the ultrasonic degradation product (SFPSUD). The lipid regulatory effects of SFPS and SFPSUD were investigated in a zebrafish model fed a high-fat diet. The results showed that SFPS significantly decreased the levels of total cholesterol (TC) and triglycerides (TG), and increased the activities of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and hepatic lipase (HL). SFPSUD was more effective than the SFPS in reducing the TC and TG levels in zebrafish, as well as increasing the LPL and HL activities. Histopathological observations of zebrafish livers showed that SFPSUD significantly improved lipid metabolism disorder in the hepatocytes. The possible lipid-lowering mechanism in zebrafish associated with SFPS and SFPSUD may involve acceleration of the lipid metabolism rate by increasing the activities of LPL and HL. Thus, SFPSUD could be tested as a highly effective hypolipidemic drug. Our results suggest that SFPS and SFPSUD have potential uses as functional foods for the prevention and treatment of hyperlipidemia. Ultrasound can be effectively applied to degrade SFPS to improve its physicochemical properties and bioactivities.

Synbiotics containing sea buckthorn polysaccharides ameliorate DSS-induced colitis in mice via regulating Th17/Treg homeostasis through intestinal microbiota and their production of BA metabolites and SCFAs.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is a chronic condition whose incidence has been rising globally. Synbiotic (SYN) is an effective means of preventing IBD. This study investigated the preventive effects and potential biological mechanisms of SYN (Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and sea buckthorn polysaccharides) on DSS-induced colitis in mice. The results indicated that dietary supplementation with SYN has a significant improvement effect on DSS mice. SYN ameliorated disease activity index (DAI), colon length, and intestinal barrier permeability in mice. In addition, RT-qPCR results indicated that after SYN intervention, the expression levels of pro-inflammatory factors (IL-6, IL-1ß, TNF-α, and IL-17F) and transcription factor RORγt secreted by Th17 cells were significantly reduced, and the expression levels of anti-inflammatory factors (IL-10 and TGF-ß) and transcription factor Foxp3 secreted by Treg cells were robustly increased. 16S rDNA sequencing analysis revealed that key intestinal microbiota related to Th17/Treg balance (Ligilactobacillus, Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, and Akkermansia) was significantly enriched. At the same time, a significant increase in microbial metabolites SCFAs and BAs was observed. We speculate that SYN may regulate the Th17/Treg balance by restructuring the structure and composition of the intestinal microbiota, thereby mitigating DSS-induced colitis.

Construction and antibacterial activities of walnut green husk polysaccharide based silver nanoparticles (AgNPs).

In this paper, the size-controllable nano­silver particles (AgNPs) were synthesized from walnut green husk polysaccharide, and its cytotoxicity and antibacterial activity were evaluated. Firstly, acidic polysaccharide WGHP2 was extracted from walnut green husk, and then the silver ion in AgNO3 was reduced in WGHP2 aqueous solution using NaBH4, so as to synthesize the nano­silver composite. The nano­silver composite was characterized by transmission electron microscope, Fourier infrared spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectrometer, scanning electron microscope, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results show that AgNPs stabilized by WGHP2 are mainly regular spheres with an average particle size distribution of 15.04-19.23 nm. The particle size distribution and morphology of AgNPs changed with the concentration of silver precursor, which is related to the dispersion of silver precursor in polysaccharide aqueous solution and the formation of AgO coordination bond between silver precursor and polysaccharide molecules. These coordination bonds changed the ability of nanoparticles to produce and release Ag+, and thus regulated their antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity, as evidenced by the experimental result of the cytotoxicity of the nano­silver particle against PC12 cells and the bacteriostatic effect on E.coli and S.aureus. Conclusively, WGHP2-Ag has good stability, antibacterial activity and low cytotoxicity.

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides regulate the gut microbiota to modulate metabolites in high-fat diet-induced obese rats.

Lycium Barbarum Polysaccharides (LBP) can benefit lipid parameters such as total cholesterol, triglyceride, and high-density lipoprotein levels and upregulate the level of Firmicutes, increase the diversity of gut microbiota and reduce metabolic disorders, finally relieving weight gain of obese rats. But it cannot reverse the outcome of obesity. Over 30 differential metabolites and four pathways are altered by LBP.

Synthesis of Novel Acrylamide Graft Copolymer of Acacia nilotica Gum for the Stabilization of Melatonin Nanoparticles for Improved Therapeutic Effect: Optimization Using (3)2 Factorial Design.

The objective of the present study was to optimize the microwave-assisted synthesis of the acrylamide graft copolymer of Acacia nilotica gum (AM-co-ANG). Furthermore, graft copolymer was used for the formulation of a nanoparticulate system using a novel top to bottom solvent antisolvent technique for the delivery of melatonin. Grafting of ANG was optimized by using 32 factorial design, where concentrations of polymer and monomer (acrylamide) were used as independent variables and swelling index in acidic (0.1 N HCl) and basic (1 N NaOH) pH. Grafted polymers were further used to develop and optimize nanoparticulate system using concentration of the graft copolymer and concentration of drug as independent variables. The size of the nanoformulation and entrapment efficiency were selected as dependent variables. Difference in infrared spectrum and absorbance maxima in the ultraviolet region confirm that grafting has taken place. Porous structure and a higher contact angle confirmed hydrophobic nature of AM-co-ANG as compared with the native polymer. Acrylamide graft copolymers show more swelling in 1 N NaOH as compared with 0.1 N HCl. In vitro toxicity studies in hepatic (HepG2 cell line), brain (SHSY5Y cell line), and skin (HaCaT cell line) cells easily predict that synthesized polymer have no cytotoxicity. The entrapment efficiency ranged from 55.24 ± 1.35% to 73.21 ± 1.83%. A nonlinear correlation was observed between independent and dependent variables, as confirmed by multivariate analysis of variance, surface regression, and the correlation report. The prepared formulations were able to release drug up to 12 h. The regression coefficient easily predicted that most of the formulations followed Baker-Lonsdale drug release kinetics.

Structural characteristics of sulfated xylogalactomannan isolated from Caulerpa okamurae and its anticoagulant activity.

Due to wonderful taste, rich nutrition and biological functions, many marine green algae in the genus Caulerpa have been recently developed as candidates for green caviar. A novel water-soluble sulfated xylogalactomannan CO-0-1 was obtained from the green algae Caulerpa okamurae. CO-0-1 was mainly composed of mannose (Man), galactose (Gal), and xylose (Xyl) at the ratio of 4.4:4.0:1.4 with the molecular weight at 470 kDa and the sulfate content at 12.78 %. The sulfated xylogalactomannan had Man at the backbone with →4)-ß-D-Manp-(1→ and →2)-ß-D-Manp-(1→ as the main chain and branches at O-3 position. The side chains contained →3)-ß-D-Galp-(1→ and minor →2)-ß-D-Xylp(1→. The sulfate groups only distributed at the side chains and at O-6 position of →3)-ß-D-Galp-(1→ and O-4 position of (1→2)-ß-D-Xylp. The anticoagulant activity indicated that CO-0-1 displayed intrinsic anticoagulant and specific anti-thrombin activities. The investigation expanded the utilization and development scene and scope of the green algae Caulerpa okamurae.

Constructing Stiff ß-Sheet for Self-Reinforced Alginate Fibers.

The application of alginate fibers is limited by relatively low mechanical properties. Herein, a self-reinforcing strategy inspired by nature is proposed to fabricate alginate fibers with minimal changes in the wet-spinning process. By adapting a coagulation bath composing of CaCl2 and ethanol, the secondary structure of sodium alginate (SA) was regulated during the fibrous formation. Ethanol mainly increased the content of ß-sheet in SA. Rheological analysis revealed a reinforcing mechanism of stiff ß-sheet for enhanced modulus and strength. In combination with Ca2+ crosslinking, the self-reinforced alginate fibers exhibited an increment of 39.0% in tensile strength and 71.9% in toughness. This work provides fundamental understanding for ß-sheet structures in polysaccharides and a subsequent self-reinforcing mechanism. It is significant for synthesizing strong and tough materials. The self-reinforcing strategy involved no extra additives and preserved the degradability of the alginate. The reinforced alginate fibers exhibited promising potentials for biological applications.

Effects of Defatting Pretreatment on Polysaccharide Extraction from Rambutan Seeds Using Subcritical Water: Optimization Using the Desirability Approach.

Rambutan seeds are by-products generated from fruit-processing factories; the leftover seeds are buried in landfills, generating methane emissions. This work aimed to extract polysaccharides (POLS) from rambutan seeds by using subcritical water extraction (SWE). The effects of defatting pretreatment and operating parameters in SWE were investigated using a Box-Behnken design. The results show that defatting pretreatment significantly enriched the POLS yield, while it had no significant effect on the total sugar content. Using the desirability approach, the suitable feedstock for SWE was defatted rambutan seeds. The maximum desirability of 0.86 was found at a temperature range of 145-150 °C, an extraction time of 15 min, and a liquid-solid ratio of 10:1. The POLS yield and total sugar content were in the range of 52.33-55.63 g/100 g feedstock and 83.37-87.45 g/100 g POLS, respectively. The extracted POLS had an equivalent molecular weight of 413.70 kDa that could be used as an extender in plant-based products. In conclusion, the defatting pretreatment of rambutan seeds not only improved the POLS yield obtained via SWE but also generated additional lipids that could be utilized as an unconventional source of specialty fat.

Advances in the Preparation, Structure and Bioactivity of Polysaccharides from Lycium ruthenicum Murr.: A Review.

Lycium ruthenicum Murr. is rich in polysaccharides, and the polysaccharides in Lycium ruthenicum Murr. (LRPS) have various bioactivities, such as antioxidant activity, anti-tumor activity, neuroprotective activity, and immunomodulatory activity. It has broad prospects in the development of functional foods and pharmaceuticals. Researchers have found that the structural characteristics of LRPS, such as molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, primary structure, etc., have a significant impact on their bioactivities. Therefore, studying the structure of LRPS is of great significance in revealing their bioactivities and mechanisms. This study, based on introducing the preparation methods of LRPS, focuses on reviewing the research progress on the main structural characteristics, various bioactivities, and mechanisms of action of LRPS. In addition, the study provides prospects for the development of LRPS in the fields of food and medicine, aiming to provide theoretical support for its deep processing and application.

Sulfated Polysaccharides from Sea Cucumber Cooking Liquid Prevents Obesity by Modulating Gut Microbiome, Transcriptome, and Metabolite Profiles in Mice Fed a High-Fat Diet.

We aimed to explore the anti-obesity mechanism from the microbiome, metabolome, and transcriptome viewpoints, focusing on the sulfated polysaccharides found in the cooking liquid of Apostichopus japonicus (CLSPAJ) to explore the potential mediators of the anti-obesity effects in mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD). The mice treated with CLSPAJ showed a decrease in obesity and blood lipid levels. Gut microbiome dysbiosis caused by the HFD was reversed after CLSPAJ supplementation, along with increased levels of indole-3-ethanol, N-2-succinyl-L-glutamic acid 5-semialdehyde, and urocanic acid. These increases were positively related to the increased Akkermansia, Lactobacillus, Roseburia, and Phascolarctobacterium. Transcriptome analysis showed that B cell receptor signaling and cytochrome P450 xenobiotic metabolism were the main contributors to the improvement in obesity. Metabolome-transcriptome analysis revealed that CLSPAJ reversal of obesity was mainly due to amino acid metabolism. These findings suggest that CLSPAJ could be a valuable prebiotic preparation for preventing obesity-related diseases.

Recent Advances in Polysaccharides from Chaenomeles speciosa (Sweet) Nakai.: Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Health Benefits, and Applications.

This article systematically reviews the extraction and purification methods, structural characteristics, structure-activity relationship, and health benefits of C. speciosa polysaccharides, and their potential application in food, medicine, functional products, and feed, in order to provide a useful reference for future research. Chaenomeles speciosa (Sweet) Nakai. has attracted the attention of health consumers and medical researchers as a traditional Chinese medicine with edible, medicinal, and nutritional benefits. According to this study, C. speciosa polysaccharides have significant health benefits, such as anti-diaetic, anti-inflammatory and analgesic, anti-tumor, and immunomodulatory effects. Researchers determined the molecular weight, structural characteristics, and monosaccharide composition and ratio of C. speciosa polysaccharides by water extraction and alcohol precipitation. This study will lay a solid foundation for further optimization of the extraction process of C. speciosa polysaccharides and the development of their products. As an active ingredient with high value, C. speciosa polysaccharides are worthy of further study and full development. C. speciosa polysaccharides should be further explored in the future, to innovate their extraction methods, enrich their types and biological activities, and lay a solid foundation for further research and development of products containing polysaccharides that are beneficial to the human body.

Optimization of Extraction Conditions for Water-Soluble Polysaccharides from the Roots of Adenophora tetraphylla (Thunb.) Fisch. and Its Effects on Glucose Consumption on HepG2 Cells.

The root of Adenophora tetraphylla (Thunb.) Fisch. is a common Chinese materia medica and the polysaccharides which have been isolated from the plant are important active components for medicinal purposes. The objective of the current study was to optimize the extraction parameters and evaluate the glucose consumption activity for Adenophorae root polysaccharides (ARPs). The optimization of ARP extraction was evaluated with preliminary experiments and using response surface methodology (RSM). The conditions investigated were 35-45 °C extraction temperature, 20-30 (v/w) water-to-solid ratio, and 3-5 h extraction time. The antidiabetic effects of ARPs for the glucose consumption activity were evaluated in HepG2 cells. The statistical analyses of the experiments indicated that temperature, water-to-solid ratio, and extraction time significantly affected ARP yield (p < 0.01). The correlation analysis revealed that the experimental data were well-aligned with a quadratic polynomial model, as evidenced by the mathematical regression model's fit. The optimal conditions for maximum ARP yield were 45 °C extraction temperature and 28.47:1 (mL/g) water-to-solid ratio with a 4.60 h extraction time. Extracts from these conditions showed significant activity of promoting cell proliferation from 11.26% (p < 0.001) to 32.47% (p < 0.001) at a dose of 50 µg/mL to 800 µg/mL and increasing glucose consumption to 75.86% (p < 0.001) at 250 µg/mL on HepG2 cells. This study provides a sustainable alternative for the industry since it allowed simplified handling and a specific quantity of ARPs. Furthermore, ARPs might directly stimulate the glucose consumption in the liver and showed no cytotoxicity; therefore, ARPs probably could be taken as a potential natural source of antidiabetic materials.

Polysaccharides from Porphyra haitanensis: A Review of Their Extraction, Modification, Structures, and Bioactivities.

Porphyra haitanensis (P. haitanensis), an important food source for coastal residents in China, has a long history of medicinal and edible value. P. haitanensis polysaccharides are some of the main active ingredients in P. haitanensis. It is worth noting that P. haitanensis polysaccharides have a surprising and satisfactory biological activity, which explains the various benefits of P. haitanensis to human health, such as anti-oxidation, immune regulation, anti-allergy, and anticancer properties. Hence, a systematic review aimed at comprehensively summarizing the recent research advances in P. haitanensis polysaccharides is necessary for promoting their better understanding. In this review, we systematically and comprehensively summarize the research progress on the extraction, purification, structural characterization, modification, and biological activity of P. haitanensis polysaccharides and address the shortcomings of the published research and suggest area of focus for future research, providing a new reference for the exploitation of polysaccharides from P. haitanensis in the fields of medicine and functional foods.

Termite Fungus Comb Polysaccharides Alleviate Hyperglycemia and Hyperlipidemia in Type 2 Diabetic Mice by Regulating Hepatic Glucose/Lipid Metabolism and the Gut Microbiota.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia. The termite fungus comb is an integral component of nests of termites, which are a global pest. Termite fungus comb polysaccharides (TFCPs) have been identified to possess antioxidant, anti-aging, and immune-enhancing properties. However, their physicochemical characteristics and their role in fighting diabetes have not been previously reported. In the current study, TFCPs were isolated and structurally characterized. The yield of TFCPs was determined to be 2.76%, and it was found to be composed of a diverse array of polysaccharides with varying molecular weights. The hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of TFCPs, as well as their potential mechanisms of action, were investigated in a T2D mouse model. The results demonstrated that oral administration of TFCPs could alleviate fasting blood glucose levels, insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and the dysfunction of pancreatic islets in T2D mice. In terms of mechanisms, the TFCPs enhanced hepatic glycogenesis and glycolysis while inhibiting gluconeogenesis. Additionally, the TFCPs suppressed hepatic de novo lipogenesis and promoted fatty acid oxidation. Furthermore, the TFCPs altered the composition of the gut microbiota in the T2D mice, increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Allobaculum and Faecalibaculum, while reducing the levels of pathogens like Mailhella and Acetatifactor. Overall, these findings suggest that TFCPs may exert anti-diabetic effects by regulating hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism and the composition of the gut microbiota. These findings suggest that TFCPs can be used as a promising functional ingredient for the prevention and treatment of T2D.

Recent advances in plant-derived polysaccharide scaffolds in tissue engineering: A review.

As a natural three-dimensional biopolymer, decellularized plant-derived scaffolds usually comprise various polysaccharides, mostly cellulose, pectin, and hemicellulose. They are characterized by natural biocompatibility and porous structures. The emergence of decellularized purified polysaccharide scaffolds provides an attractive method to overcome the challenges associated with nutrient delivery and biocompatibility, as they serve as optimal non-immune environments for stem cell adhesion and proliferation. To date, limited corresponding literature is available to systemically summarize the development and potential of these scaffolds in tissue engineering. Therefore, the current review summarized the biomimetic properties of plant-derived polysaccharide scaffolds and the latest progress in tissue engineering applications. This review first discusses the advantages of decellularized plant-derived polysaccharide scaffolds by briefly introducing their features and current limitations in clinical applications. Subsequently, the latest progress in emerging applications of regenerative biomaterials is reviewed, followed by a discussion of the studies on the interactions of biomaterials with cells and tissues. Finally, challenges in obtaining reliable scaffolds and possible future directions are discussed.