Endogenous Antimicrobial-Immunomodulatory Molecules: Networking Biomolecules of Innate Immunity.

Endogenous antimicrobial-immunomodulatory molecules (EAIMs) are essential to immune-mediated human health and evolution. Conventionally, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been regarded as the dominant endogenous antimicrobial molecule; however, AMPs are not sufficient to account for the full spectrum of antimicrobial-immunomodulatory duality occurring within the human body. The threat posed by pathogenic microbes is pervasive with the capacity for widespread impact across many organ systems and multiple biochemical pathways; accordingly, the host needs the capacity to react with an equally diverse response. This can be attained by having EAIMs that traverse the full range of molecular size (small to large molecules) and structural diversity (including molecules other than peptides). This review identifies multiple molecules (peptide/protein, lipid, carbohydrate, nucleic acid, small organic molecule, and metallic cation) as EAIMs and discusses the possibility of cooperative, additive effects amongst the various EAIM classes during the host response to a microbial assault. This comprehensive consideration of the full molecular diversity of EAIMs enables the conclusion that EAIMs constitute a previously uncatalogued structurally diverse and collectively underappreciated immuno-active group of integrated molecular responders within the innate immune system's first line of defence.

Semi- and fully synthetic carbohydrate vaccines against pathogenic bacteria: recent developments.

The importance of vaccine-induced protection was repeatedly demonstrated over the last three decades and emphasized during the recent COVID-19 pandemic as the safest and most effective way of preventing infectious diseases. Vaccines have controlled, and in some cases, eradicated global viral and bacterial infections with high efficiency and at a relatively low cost. Carbohydrates form the capsular sugar coat that surrounds the outer surface of human pathogenic bacteria. Specific surface-exposed bacterial carbohydrates serve as potent vaccine targets that broadened our toolbox against bacterial infections. Since first approved for commercial use, antibacterial carbohydrate-based vaccines mostly rely on inherently complex and heterogenous naturally derived polysaccharides, challenging to obtain in a pure, safe, and cost-effective manner. The introduction of synthetic fragments identical with bacterial capsular polysaccharides provided well-defined and homogenous structures that resolved many challenges of purified polysaccharides. The success of semisynthetic glycoconjugate vaccines against bacterial infections, now in different phases of clinical trials, opened up new possibilities and encouraged further development towards fully synthetic antibacterial vaccine solutions. In this mini-review, we describe the recent achievements in semi- and fully synthetic carbohydrate vaccines against a range of human pathogenic bacteria, focusing on preclinical and clinical studies.

Corpora Amylacea in the Human Brain Exhibit Neoepitopes of a Carbohydrate Nature.

Corpora amylacea (CA) in the human brain are polyglucosan bodies that accumulate residual substances originated from aging and both neurodegenerative and infectious processes. These structures, which act as waste containers, are released from the brain to the cerebrospinal fluid, reach the cervical lymph nodes via the meningeal lymphatic system and may be phagocytosed by macrophages. Recent studies indicate that CA present certain neoepitopes (NEs) that can be recognized by natural antibodies of the IgM class, and although evidence of different kinds suggests that these NEs may be formed by carbohydrate structures, their precise nature is unknown. Here, we adapted standard techniques to examine this question. We observed that the preadsorption of IgMs with specific carbohydrates has inhibitory effects on the interaction between IgMs and CA, and found that the digestion of CA proteins had no effect on this interaction. These findings point to the carbohydrate nature of the NEs located in CA. Moreover, the present study indicates that, in vitro, the binding between certain natural IgMs and certain epitopes may be disrupted by certain monosaccharides. We wonder, therefore, whether these inhibitions may also occur in vivo. Further studies should now be carried out to assess the possible in vivo effect of glycemia on the reactivity of natural IgMs and, by extension, on natural immunity.

Carbohydrate-containing nanoparticles as vaccine adjuvants.

Introduction: Adjuvants are essential to vaccines for immunopotentiation in the elicitation of protective immunity. However, classical and widely used aluminum-based adjuvants have limited capacity to induce cellular response. There are increasing needs for appropriate adjuvants with improved profiles for vaccine development toward emerging pathogens. Carbohydrate-containing nanoparticles (NPs) with immunomodulatory activity and particulate nanocarriers for effective antigen presentation are capable of eliciting a more balanced humoral and cellular immune response.Areas covered: We reviewed several carbohydrates with immunomodulatory properties. They include chitosan, ß-glucan, mannan, and saponins, which have been used in vaccine formulations. The mode of action, the preparation methods, characterization of these carbohydrate-containing NPs and the corresponding vaccines are presented.Expert opinion: Several carbohydrate-containing NPs have entered the clinical stage or have been used in licensed vaccines for human use. Saponin-containing NPs are being evaluated in a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, the pathogen causing the on-going worldwide pandemic. Vaccines with carbohydrate-containing NPs are in different stages of development, from preclinical studies to late-stage clinical trials. A better understanding of the mode of action for carbohydrate-containing NPs as vaccine carriers and as immunostimulators will likely contribute to the design and development of new generation vaccines against cancer and infectious diseases.

Carbohydrate antigen microarray analysis of serum IgG and IgM antibodies before and after adult porcine islet xenotransplantation in cynomolgus macaques.

Understanding the anti-carbohydrate antibody response toward epitopes expressed on porcine cells, tissues, and organs is critical to advancing xenotransplantation toward clinical application. In this study, we determined IgM and IgG antibody specificities and relative concentrations in five cynomolgus monkeys at baseline and at intervals following intraportal xenotransplantation of adult porcine islets. This study utilized a carbohydrate antigen microarray that comprised more than 400 glycoconjugates, including historically reported α-Gal and non-α-Gal carbohydrate antigens with various modifications. The elicited anti-carbohydrate antibody responses were predominantly IgM compared to IgG in 4 out of 5 monkeys. Patterns of elicited antibody responses greater than 1.5 difference (log2 base units; 2.8-fold on a linear scale) from pre-serum to post-serum sampling specific for carbohydrate antigens were heterogeneous and recipient-specific. Increases in the elicited antibody response to α-Gal, Sda, GM2 antigens, or Lexis X antigen were found in individual monkeys. The novel carbohydrate structures Galß1-4GlcNAcß1-3Galß1 and N-linked glycans with Manα1-6(GlcNAcß1-2Manα1-3)Manß1-4GlcNAcß structure were common targets of elicited IgM antibodies. These results provide important insights into the carbohydrate epitopes that elicit antibodies following pig-to-monkey islet xenotransplantation and reveal possible targets for gene editing.

A GalNAc/Gal-specific lectin modulates immune responses via toll-like receptor 4 independently of carbohydrate-binding ability.

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) recognizes various protein ligands; however, the protein-TLR4 binding model is unclear. Here we demonstrate a Crenomytilus grayanus lectin (CGL)-TLR4/MD2 model to show that CGL interacts with a TLR4/myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) complex independently of sugar-binding properties. CGL could suppress lipopolysaccharide-induced immune responses significantly, suggesting that TLR4 itself has potential as a therapeutic target.

Expanded collectin family in bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana): Identification and characterization of plasma collectins.

BLAST searches against databases for the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), using the collectin sequence previously identified in tadpoles, revealed the presence of at least 20 members of the collectin gene family. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the bullfrog possesses expanded gene subfamilies encoding mannose-binding lectin (MBL) and pulmonary surfactant-associated protein D (PSAPD). Two collectins, of 20 kDa (PSAPD1) and 25 kDa (PSAPD6), were purified as a mixture from adult bullfrog plasma using affinity chromatography. These collectins were present as an oligomer of ~400 kDa in their native state, and showed Ca2+-dependent carbohydrate binding with different sugar preferences. Affinity-purified collectins showed weak E. coli agglutination and bactericidal activities, compared with those of plasma. Although both PSAPD1 and PSAPD6 genes were predominantly expressed in the liver, PSAPD1 transcripts were abundant in adults whereas PSAPD6 transcripts were abundant in tadpoles. The findings indicate that two gene subfamilies in the collectin family have diverged structurally, functionally and transcriptionally in the bullfrog. Rapid expansion of the collectin family in bullfrogs may reflect the onset of sub-functionalization of the prototype MBL gene towards tetrapod MBL and PSAPDs, and may be one means of natural adaptation in the innate immune system to various pathogens in both aquatic and terrestrial environments.

[Prevalance of immunoglobulin E against cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants (CCD) and impact of a blocker in seasonal allergy tests]. / Prävalenz von Immunglobulin E gegen kreuzreagierende Kohlenhydrat-Seitenketten (CCD) und die Wirkung eines Blockers im saisonalen In-vitro-Allergietest.

OBJECTIVES: Cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants (CCD) cause false positive/clinically irrelevant results in seasonal in vitro allergy tests due to the binding of immunoglobulin IgE against CCD (anti-CCD IgE).There is no study regarding the presence of this phenomen in cats. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of polysensitization in serum samples and evaluate the impact of a CCD inhibitor/blocker in multi-positive seasonal allergy test results in cats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 472 feline sera, submitted from July 2017 to June 2018 for seasonal in vitro allergy test via ELISA Fc-Ε receptor technology, were studied. Samples were grouped into polysensitized (group A) and non-polysensitized (group B). Polysensitized samples (A) were retested after adding a modified glycoprotein plants extract (blocker). To determine the impact of the blocking to each allergen, the results in 48 randomly selected samples in cats prior- and post-blocking were investigated. RESULTS: Polysensitization to seasonal allergens was diagnosed in 137 (29 %) samples. No discrepancy in presence of polysensitization was seen in different seasons. Blocking eliminated the binding of anti-CCD IgE and produced either negative test results (49 %) or a decrease of 1-4 reaction classes (41 %) which is indicative of the simultaneous presence of clinically relevant allergen specific IgE. Total negative reactions after blocking were less common in 6-grass mix (31 %), rye (23 %) and sheep sorrel (25 %) in comparison to willow und birch-hazel (67 %), mugwort-ragweed und nettle (65 %), as well as English plantain (54 %). CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In order to improve the quality of seasonal in vitro allergy test, blocking should be employed in cases of polysensitized results resulting in an avoidance of the administration of non-offending allergens during allergen-specific immunotherapy (ASIT).

Limited Neonatal Carbohydrate-Specific Antibody Repertoire Consecutive to Partial Prenatal Transfer of Maternal Antibodies.

Despite the prominence of carbohydrate-specific antibodies in human sera, data on their emergence and antigen specificities are limited. Whereas maternal IgG are transferred prenatally to the fetal circulation, IgM present in cord blood originate from fetal B lymphocytes. Considering the limited exposure of the fetus to foreign antigens, we assessed the repertoire of carbohydrate-specific antibodies in human cord blood and matched maternal blood samples using glycan arrays. Carbohydrate-specific IgM was absent in cord blood, whereas low cord blood IgG reactivity to glycans was detectable. Comparing IgG reactivities of matched pairs, we observed a general lack of correlation in the antigen specificity of IgG from cord blood and maternal blood due to a selective exclusion of most carbohydrate-specific IgG from maternofetal transfer. Given the importance of intestinal bacteria in inducing carbohydrate-specific antibodies, we analyzed global antibody specificities toward commensal bacteria. Similar IgG reactivities to specific Bacteroides species were detected in matched cord and maternal blood samples, thus pointing to an efficient maternal transfer of anti-microbial IgG. Due to the observed selectivity in maternofetal IgG transfer, the lack of fetal antibodies to carbohydrate epitopes is only partially compensated by maternal IgG, thus resulting in a weak response to carbohydrate antigens in neonates.

The History of Carbohydrates in Type I Allergy.

Although first described decades ago, the relevance of carbohydrate specific antibodies as mediators of type I allergy had not been recognized until recently. Previously, allergen specific IgE antibodies binding to carbohydrate epitopes were considered to demonstrate a clinically irrelevant cross-reactivity. However, this changed following the discovery of type I allergies specifically mediated by oligosaccharide structures. Especially the emerging understanding of red meat allergy characterized by IgE directed to the oligosaccharide alpha-gal showed that carbohydrate-mediated reactions can result in life threatening systemic anaphylaxis which in contrast to former assumptions proves a high clinical relevance of some carbohydrate allergens. Within the scope of this review article, we illustrate the historical development of carbohydrate-allergen-research, reaching from only diagnostically relevant crossreactive-carbohydrate-determinants to clinically important antigens mediating type I allergy. Focusing on clinical and immunological features of the alpha-gal syndrome, we highlight the discovery of oligosaccharides as potentially highly immunogenic antigens and mediators of type I allergy, report what is known about the route of sensitization and the immunological mechanisms involved in sensitization and elicitation phase of allergic responses as well as currently available diagnostic and therapeutic tools. Finally, we briefly report on carbohydrates being involved in type I allergies different from alpha-gal.

Structure and predictive metabolic contribution of intestinal microbiota of Longfin yellowtail (Seriola rivoliana) juveniles in aquaculture systems.

Seriola rivoliana intestinal microbiota (IM) was characterised under aquaculture conditions through 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Specimens of 30 days after hatching (DAH) were maintained in three tanks and fed under the same environmental conditions for characterisation 15 days prior to sampling. Three fish were randomly taken from each tank; total DNA extraction of the gut microbiota was performed to characterise microbial composition and its metabolic prediction. The V3 hypervariable region of the 16S rRNA was amplified and sequenced with Illumina pair-end technology. The prokaryotic components in the S. rivoliana intestine were dominated mainly by the phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria and Actinobacteria. No significant differences in beta diversity were detected in the three samples (tanks). However in alpha diversity, they were detected in juveniles of the same cohort within the same group, as exemplified by enrichment of certain bacterial groups, mainly of the Clostridia class, which were specific in each fish within the same tank. The metabolic prediction analyses suggested that S. rivoliana IM contribute to the metabolism of amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and immune system. This study provides the first IM characterisation under rearing conditions of S. rivoliana-a species with broad economic potential-and contributes to novel information for potential use of probiotics in future trials.

Tumor-associated carbohydrates and immunomodulatory lectins as targets for cancer immunotherapy.

During oncogenesis, tumor cells present specific carbohydrate chains that are new targets for cancer immunotherapy. Whereas these tumor-associated carbohydrates (TACA) can be targeted with antibodies and vaccination approaches, TACA including sialic acid-containing glycans are able to inhibit anticancer immune responses by engagement of immune receptors on leukocytes. A family of immune-modulating receptors are sialic acid-binding Siglec receptors that have been recently described to inhibit antitumor activity mediated by myeloid cells, natural killer cells and T cells. Other TACA-binding receptors including selectins have been linked to cancer progression. Recent studies have shown that glycan-lectin interactions can be targeted to improve cancer immunotherapy. For example, interactions between the immune checkpoint T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3 and the lectin galectin-9 are targeted in clinical trials. In addition, an antibody against the lectin Siglec-15 is being tested in an early clinical trial. In this review, we summarize the previous and current efforts to target TACA and to inhibit inhibitory immune receptors binding to TACA including the Siglec-sialoglycan axis.

Cross-Reactive Carbohydrate Determinant in Apis mellifera, Solenopsis invicta and Polybia paulista Venoms: Identification of Allergic Sensitization and Cross-Reactivity.

Allergic reactions to Hymenoptera venom, which could lead to systemic and even fatal symptoms, is characterized by hypersensitivity reactions mediated by specific IgE (sIgE) driven to venom allergens. Patients multisensitized to sIgE usually recognize more than one allergen in different Hymenoptera species. However, the presence of sIgE directed against Cross-Reactive Carbohydrate Determinant (CCD), which occurs in some allergens from Hymenoptera venom, hampers the identification of the culprit insects. CCD is also present in plants, pollen, fruits, but not in mammals. Bromelain (Brl) extracted from pineapples is a glycoprotein commonly used for reference to sIgE-CCD detection and analysis. In sera of fifty-one Hymenoptera allergic patients with specific IgE ≥ 1.0 KU/L, we assessed by immunoblotting the reactivity of sIgE to the major allergens of Apis mellifera, Polybia paulista and Solenopsis invicta venoms. We also distinguished, using sera adsorption procedures, the cases of CCD cross-reaction using Brl as a marker and inhibitor of CCD epitopes. The presence of reactivity for bromelain (24-28 kDa) was obtained in 43% of the patients, in which 64% presented reactivity for more than one Hymenoptera venom in radioallergosorbent (RAST) tests, and 90% showed reactivity in immunoblot analysis to the major allergens of Apis mellifera, Polybia paulista and Solenopsis invicta venoms. Sera adsorption procedures with Brl lead to a significant reduction in patients' sera reactivity to the Hymenoptera allergens. Immunoblotting assay using pre- and post-Brl adsorption sera from wasp-allergic patients blotted with non-glycosylated recombinant antigens (rPoly p1, rPoly p5) from Polybia paulista wasp venom showed no change in reactivity pattern of sIgE that recognize allergen peptide epitopes. Our results, using Brl as a marker and CCD inhibitor to test sIgE reactivity, suggest that it could complement diagnostic methods and help to differentiate specific reactivity to allergens' peptide epitopes from cross-reactivity caused by CCD, which is extremely useful in clinical practice.

Sensitization to Hymenoptera venom in pollen allergic patients: Frequency and involvement of cross-reacting carbohydrate determinants (CCD).

Sensitization to Hymenoptera venom in patients without a history of systemic allergic reactions to Hymenoptera stings is frequently found and can be due to the presence of specific IgE to cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants (CCD). This study investigates 105 pollen allergic subjects for the presence of specific IgE to honeybee or wasp venom, pollen, the MUXF3 carbohydrate epitope from bromelain and recombinant Hymenoptera venom components. In addition, in a subgroup of patients (n = 10) a basophil activation test (BAT) using bee and wasp venom was performed. Specific IgE to Hymenoptera venom was detected in 45.7% of the pollen allergic subjects and in 26.7% of the non-atopic controls, both without a history of systemic allergic reactions to Hymenoptera stings. The high sensitization rate in atopic patients could partially be explained by cross-sensitization between pollen and Hymenoptera venom due to specific IgE to CCDs. In our study population, only 20% showed a sensitization to CCDs. Primary sensitization due to sting exposure, high total IgE values or unspecific binding and detection of low affinity antibodies in the test procedure could be reasons. Thus, determination of specific IgE to Hymenoptera venom in patients without a history of systemic allergic reactions as screening test is not recommended.

Unique repertoire of anti-carbohydrate antibodies in individual human serum.

Humoral immunity to pathogens and other environmental challenges is paramount to maintain normal health, and individuals lacking or unable to make antibodies are at risk. Recent studies indicate that many human protective antibodies are against carbohydrate antigens; however, little is known about repertoires and individual variation of anti-carbohydrate antibodies in healthy individuals. Here we analyzed anti-carbohydrate antibody repertoires (ACARs) of 105 healthy individual adult donors, aged 20-60+ from different ethnic backgrounds to explore variations in antibodies, as defined by binding to glycan microarrays and by affinity purification. Using microarrays that contained > 1,000 glycans, including antigens from animal cells and microbes, we profiled the IgG and IgM ACARs from all donors. Each donor expressed many ACAs, but had a relatively unique ACAR, which included unanticipated antibodies to carbohydrate antigens not well studied, such as chitin oligosaccharides, Forssman-related antigens, globo-type antigens, and bacterial glycans. We also saw some expected antibodies to ABO(H) blood group and α-Gal-type antigens, although these also varied among individuals. Analysis suggests differences in ACARs are associated with ethnicity and age. Thus, each individual ACAR is relatively unique, suggesting that individualized information could be useful in precision medicine for predicting and monitoring immune health and resistance to disease.

Emergence and significance of carbohydrate-specific antibodies.

Carbohydrate-specific antibodies are widespread among all classes of immunoglobulins. Despite their broad occurrence, little is known about their formation and biological significance. Carbohydrate-specific antibodies are often classified as natural antibodies under the assumption that they arise without prior exposure to exogenous antigens. On the other hand, various carbohydrate-specific antibodies, including antibodies to ABO blood group antigens, emerge after the contact of immune cells with the intestinal microbiota, which expresses a vast diversity of carbohydrate antigens. Here we explore the development of carbohydrate-specific antibodies in humans, addressing the definition of natural antibodies and the production of carbohydrate-specific antibodies upon antigen stimulation. We focus on the significance of the intestinal microbiota in shaping carbohydrate-specific antibodies not just in the gut, but also in the blood circulation. The structural similarity between bacterial carbohydrate antigens and surface glycoconjugates of protists, fungi and animals leads to the production of carbohydrate-specific antibodies protective against a broad range of pathogens. Mimicry between bacterial and human glycoconjugates, however, can also lead to the generation of carbohydrate-specific antibodies that cross-react with human antigens, thereby contributing to the development of autoimmune disorders.

Old World Monkeys are less than ideal transplantation models for testing pig organs lacking three carbohydrate antigens (Triple-Knockout).

Triple-knockout (TKO) pigs (with added protective human transgenes) are likely to be optimal sources of organs for clinical organ xenotransplantation because many humans have minimal or no natural antibody to TKO pig cells. However, Old World monkeys (OWMs) have naturally-existing antibodies directed to TKO cells. We measured anti-pig IgM/IgG binding, and complement-dependent cytotoxicity to wild-type (WT), α1,3-galactosyltransferase gene-knockout (GTKO), and TKO pig peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) using sera from humans, several OWMs, and two New World monkeys (NWMs). Furthermore, we compared survival of GTKO (n = 5) and TKO (n = 3) pig kidneys in baboons. OWMs had significantly greater IgM binding and cytotoxicity to TKO PBMCs than humans or NWMs. Mean anti-TKO IgM was significantly higher in OWMs and significantly lower in NWMs than in humans. Cytotoxicity of OWM sera to TKO PBMCs was significantly greater than of human serum, but there was no significant difference between human and NWM sera. The median survival of TKO pig kidneys (4 days) in baboons was significantly shorter than that of GTKO kidneys (136 days) (p < 0.05). Even though considered ideal for clinical xenotransplantation, the presence of naturally-existing antibodies to TKO pig cells in OWMs complicates the transplantation of TKO pig kidneys in OWMs.

Pivotal role of the carbohydrate recognition domain in self-interaction of CLEC4A to elicit the ITIM-mediated inhibitory function in murine conventional dendritic cells in vitro.

C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) with a characteristic carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) in the extracellular portion, mediate crucial cellular functions upon recognition of glycosylated pathogens and self-glycoproteins. CLEC4A is the only classical CLR that possesses an intracellular immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM), which possibly transduces negative signals. However, how CLEC4A exerts cellular inhibition remains unclear. Here, we report that the self-interaction of CLEC4A through the CRD is required for the ITIM-mediated suppressive function in conventional dendritic cells (cDCs). Human type 2 cDCs (cDC2) and monocytes display a higher expression of CLEC4A than cDC1 and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) as well as B cells. The extracellular portion of CLEC4A specifically binds to a murine cDC cell line expressing CLEC4A, while its extracellular portion lacking the N-glycosylation site or the EPS motif within the CRD reduces their association. Furthermore, the deletion of the EPS motif within the CRD or ITIM in CLEC4A almost completely impairs its suppressive effect on the activation of the murine cDC cell line, whereas the absence of the N-glycosylation site within the CRD exhibits partial inhibition on their activation. On the other hand, antagonistic monoclonal antibody (mAb) to CLEC4A, which inhibits the self-interaction of CLEC4A and its downstream signaling in murine transfectants, enhances the activation of monocytes and monocyte-derived immature DCs upon stimulation with a Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligand. Thus, our findings suggest a pivotal role of the CRD in self-interaction of CLEC4A to elicit the ITIM-mediated inhibitory signal for the control of the function of cDCs.

Serum amyloid P-component/C-reactive proteins in fugu (Takifugu rubripes) egg with binding ability to disease-causing bacteria by carbohydrate-recognition.

Two galactose-binding proteins were purified from the eggs of Takifugu rubripes by affinity chromatography. These proteins were detected at 26 and 23 kDa under reducing and at 40 and 45 kDa under non-reducing conditions at SDS-PAGE. The peptide sequences from both proteins matched to short-type pentraxin. The 26-kDa lectin was glycosylated, while the other one was not, indicating that these could be glycoforms of pentraxin. Messenger RNA of pentraxin was detected in eggs and embryos at 1-cell stage, was undetectable till blastula, and finally detected again after gastrula, suggesting that the mRNAs in eggs and 1-cell embryos were maternal in origin, and autologous transcription of the gene occurred after blastula. Since they bind to pathogenic bacteria, egg pentraxins may have immunological functions during embryogenesis. This is the first study to show the presence of short-type pentraxin in fish eggs and the diversity of fish egg lectins.

Immunology of carbohydrate-based vaccines.

Carbohydrates are considered as promising targets for vaccine development against infectious diseases where cell surface glycan's on many infectious agents are attributed to playing an important role in pathogenesis. Understanding the relationship between carbohydrates and immune components at a molecular level is crucial for the development of well-defined vaccines. Recently, carbohydrate immunology research has been accelerated by the development of new technologies that contribute to the design of optimum antigens, synthesis of antigens and the studies of antigen-antibody interactions, and as a result, several promising carbohydrate-based vaccine candidates have been prepared in recent years. This article briefly presents the mechanistic pathways of polysaccharide, glycoconjugate, glycolipid and zwitterionic vaccines and the interplay between carbohydrate antigen and immune response.