Dairy calf transportation in the United States: Challenges and strategies to improve animal welfare.

The objectives of this symposium review are to summarize relevant research and key welfare issues relative to calf transportation and identify strategies to mitigate welfare challenges. An important animal welfare concern across the US dairy industry is the transportation of preweaning calves from the source dairy to a calf-raising facility (e.g., calf ranches, heifer raising facilities, veal operations), auction, livestock market, or directly to slaughter. Millions of calves are transported annually in the United States and calf transport has garnered increased attention. Transportation stressors include limited (if any) access to food and water, commingling, environmental temperature changes, and a variety of handling techniques. Calves in the United States are often transported at an average age of 3 d, and in many cases, less than 24 h of age. Neonates are particularly vulnerable to transportation stressors due to their decreased ability to thermoregulate, underdeveloped immune system, and immature physiologic stress responses. In addition to age, fitness for transport is a key welfare consideration; recent data from the United States demonstrate that some source dairies transport compromised calves (i.e., dehydration, diarrhea, navel inflammation, and so on), leading to important welfare challenges during transportation. Calves arriving at US veal facilities have been reported to be dehydrated, lethargic, hypoglycemic, and may also have poor body condition, navel inflammation, and diarrhea. Thus, there is ample opportunity to target decision-making and producer-focused education not only at the source dairy, but also at each stage of transportation to address critical welfare concerns. In addition, the supply chain and procurement model that influence calf transport practices should be evaluated to determine potential opportunities to improve calf welfare. Here, we provide 5 potential strategies to improve the welfare of transported calves: (1) provide excellent newborn care that "preconditions" calves for transport, (2) assess calves' fitness-for-transport to ensure they can withstand the journey, (3) handle calves with care, (4) wait until calves are older to transport, and (5) reduce transport duration.

Preliminary exploration of the health and behavior around the time of transportation of beef × dairy calves and Holstein bull calves 3 days of age or younger in the western United States.

In the western United States, it is common practice for dairy and beef × dairy calves to be sold and shipped within the first few days of life, making transportation one of the first challenges that a calf will experience. To date, no published research has examined the effects of calf transport within the western United States. The objectives of this observational study were to describe the health status of calves leaving the source dairy, characterize transportation conditions and calf behavior during transportation, and determine if age at transportation and transportation duration are associated with dehydration, blood glucose and lactate, and behavior. An observational study was performed on 2 source dairies in the western United States. Initial enrollment consisted of dairy bull calves and beef × dairy calves (n = 126 total) across 16 transport cohorts which were sold and transported to separate calf-raising facilities approximately 80 km from the source dairy. Health exams and measurements were performed on all study participants 2 to 3 h before transport and ≤2 h after transport. Two researchers performed health exams using the Wisconsin calf health score, which included clinical respiratory scores, lung ultrasound, and fecal, navel, and joint scores. Hydration status was assessed using skin tent duration. Blood samples were collected and immediately analyzed for blood glucose and lactate using glucose and lactate meters. Accelerometers were attached at the source dairy on ≤10 calves in each of the 16 transport groups to record movement and behavior during transport (n = 90 had accelerometers attached). Results showed that about half of calves (49%) were identified with at least one health abnormality before transport. Researchers found an association between age and dehydration status in which calves <24 h of age were more likely to be dehydrated compared with calves 1 d of age. Additionally over half of the calves (56%) were identified as dehydrated after transport. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first observational study that investigates the effects of transportation on dairy bull and beef × dairy calf health and welfare in the western United States. Our findings support the need for improved management and decision making before transporting calves to reduce the negative effects of transport.

Veterinarians' perspectives of pain, treatment, and diagnostics for bovine respiratory disease in preweaned dairy calves.

Background: Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in preweaned dairy calves. Early detection and therefore treatment are essential to minimize animal welfare concerns, particularly given that recent research also demonstrates that BRD is painful. Veterinarians are essential to ensuring calves with BRD receive appropriate treatment, but little to no research exists regarding veterinarians' perspectives about BRD detection and treatment in dairy calves. This is a critical step to determine education and outreach needs that can target BRD treatment to improve calf welfare. Thus, the objectives of the current study were to describe US veterinarians' current detection methods and treatment practices for BRD in preweaned dairy calves, understand veterinarians' rationale for treatment decisions, and identify gaps in knowledge regarding treatment and management of calf BRD. Methods: An online survey was sent to two veterinarian-focused list-serves and newsletter. Final responses (n = 47) were analyzed using qualitative and quantitative analyses. Results: On-farm necropsy was the diagnostic tool most considered "extremely important" (26, 55.3%). All veterinarians indicated that BRD was at least mildly painful. However, only 53% of veterinarians (n = 25) assess pain in preweaned calves with BRD in order to make treatment decisions. Furthermore, of the veterinarians that assessed pain, 40% (n = 10) reported that their knowledge of pain assessment and treatment was adequate, but most (n = 24) considered a calf's pain-level at least "moderately important" to make BRD treatment decisions. The most important ancillary therapy for antimicrobials were NSAIDs (21, 44.7%). The ancillary therapy most often considered "extremely important" for treating BRD was NSAIDs. Qualitative analysis identified the following as factors that influenced veterinarians' willingness to provide analgesia: the farm's willingness to administer drugs, clinical signs, perceived severity of pain, the need for anti-inflammatories, and the presence of fever and comorbidities. Discussion: This study included a small sample size and an extremely low response rate; results should therefore be interpreted with caution. Despite this limitation, important gaps in knowledge were identified, including pain assessment and consideration when making treatment decisions, and diagnostic tools. Addressing these needs in future research and outreach efforts could help ensure appropriate and timely treatment of calf BRD, including pain mitigation.

Validation of alternative behavioral observation methods in young broiler chickens.

Continuous sampling provides the most complete data set for behavioral research; however, it often requires a prohibitive investment of time and labor. The objectives of this study were to validate behavioral observation methods of young broiler chickens using 1) 7 scan sampling intervals (0.5, 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, and 30 min) and 2) an automated tracking software program (EthoVision XT 14) compared to continuous behavioral observation, considered the gold standard for behavior observation. Ten 19-day-old Ross 708 broiler cockerels were included in this study. All behavior was video recorded over an 8-h period, and data were collected using a continuous sampling methodology. The same video files were utilized for analysis for scan sampling and automated tracking software analysis. For both analyses, the following criteria were used to identify which method accurately reflected the true duration and frequency for each behavior, as determined by continuous observation: R2 ≥ 0.9, slope was not different from 1 (P > 0.05), and intercept was not different from 0 (P > 0.05). Active, eating, drinking, and maintenance behaviors were accurately estimated with 0.5-min scan sample intervals. Active, inactive, eating, and maintenance behaviors were accurately estimated with 1-min scan sample intervals. Inactive behavior was accurately estimated with 5-min scan sample intervals. The remainder of sampling intervals examined did not provide accurate estimates, and no scan sampling interval accurately estimated the number of behavior bouts. The automated tracking software was able to accurately detect true duration of inactive behavior but was unable to accurately detect activity. The results of this study suggest that high-frequency behaviors can be accurately observed with instantaneous scan sampling up to 1-min intervals. Automated tracking software can accurately identify inactivity in young broiler chickens, but further behavior identification will require refinement.

Short communication: Behavioral attitude scores associated with bovine respiratory disease identified using calf lung ultrasound and clinical respiratory scoring.

The objective of this study was to determine whether calves exhibit differences in behavioral attitude when diagnosed with their first bovine respiratory disease (BRD) event and whether fever (≥39°C) at the time of BRD diagnosis affected attitude. Preweaned dairy calves (n = 280; 21 ± 6 d) were examined twice weekly until weaning using a clinical respiratory score (CRS; CRS+: 2 respiratory categories with scores of 2 or greater; CRS-: 1 respiratory category with a score of 2 or greater or all respiratory categories scoring less than 2), lung ultrasound, and attitude score (normal = bright, alert, responsive; depressed = dull but responds to stimulation, slow to stand, or reluctant to lie down). Bovine respiratory disease was categorized as subclinical BRD (SBRD; CRS- and lung consolidation ≥1 cm2; n = 164) or clinical BRD (CBRD; CRS+, with or without lung consolidation; n = 79). Calves without BRD (NOBRD; n = 37) remained CRS- with lung consolidation <1 cm2 for the study. Depressed attitudes were found in 23, 6, and 0% of CBRD, SBRD, and NOBRD calves, respectively. In calves with CBRD, the odds of having a depressed attitude were 5.2 (95% confidence interval, confidence interval: 1.1-23.7) and 4.5 (95% confidence interval: 2.0-10.4) times higher compared with the odds of NOBRD and SBRD calves having a depressed attitude, respectively. The odds of having a depressed attitude did not differ between SBRD and NOBRD calves. Fever was associated with the odds of having a depressed attitude score, whereby calves with a fever had 6.2 (95% confidence interval: 2.8-14) times higher odds of having a depressed attitude score compared with calves without a fever. Sensitivity and specificity of the attitude score for identifying CBRD were 23% (95% confidence interval: 14-33) and 95% (95% confidence interval: 82-99), respectively. Producers should be cautious when using this attitude score as the primary means of detecting calves affected by BRD.

Growth of preweaned, group-housed dairy calves diagnosed with respiratory disease using clinical respiratory scoring and thoracic ultrasound-A cohort study.

The objectives of this cohort study were to identify a cut point on a previously described 6-level ultrasound score (USS6) at which average daily gain (ADG) is affected and to determine whether there is any additional benefit of using a clinical respiratory score. Calves from a commercial herd in Ohio were enrolled at entry to an automated calf feeder barn at (mean ± standard deviation) 21 ± 6 d of age (n = 308). Calves that survived until 50 d (n = 233) were included in the analyses. Twice-weekly health exams included a clinical respiratory score (CRS), USS6 (0-5, based on lung mass involved), and body weight. For the CRS, the nose, eyes, ears, cough, and rectal temperature were assigned a score (0-3), and calves were considered positive (CRS+) when at least 2 areas scored ≥2. For analysis, USS6 and CRS status were based on a calf's first bovine respiratory disease event identified during the study period. The first multivariable linear model was fit to determine whether USS6 was associated with ADG and controlled for CRS. We detected no difference in ADG among calves with USS6 scores of 2, 3, 4, and 5. Based on this finding, we proposed a simplified 2-level ultrasound score (USS2; without lung consolidation or with lung consolidation ≥1 cm2). A second multivariable model was fit to assess the association between USS2 and ADG; this model controlled for CRS, birth weight category, breed, and cohort. Calves with lung consolidation (n = 169) had lower ADG than calves without lung consolidation (n = 64; 0.73 vs. 0.85 kg/d, respectively). Calves that were CRS+ (n = 61) had lower ADG than calves that were CRS- (n = 172; 0.74 vs. 0.84 kg/d, respectively). Although CRS did not affect the relationship between USS2 and ADG, both CRS and USS2 are necessary to explain variation in ADG. We simplified USS6 and proposed USS2 based on how lung consolidation affected ADG. A simplified 2-level ultrasound score may be more practical for veterinarians to identify calves that may be at risk for poor growth. The effect on ADG was similar between calves with lung consolidation and calves identified as CRS+. Therefore, both thoracic ultrasonography and CRS should be used to identify calves with all types of respiratory disease that affect growth. However, this study represents calves in group housing from 21 to 50 d of age on 1 farm with high disease incidence. We encourage studies that investigate the effects of lung consolidation and CRS on ADG in different management systems.

Associations of behavior-based measurements and clinical disease in preweaned, group-housed dairy calves.

Producers report bovine respiratory disease and neonatal calf diarrhea as the 2 most common diseases in preweaned calves, both of which can affect calf performance and welfare. Housing calves in groups during the preweaning period has increased in popularity and has the potential to improve calf welfare, but only if producers can detect and treat disease efficiently. A health-screening tool is needed that allows producers to identify suspect animals but minimize the time spent examining healthy animals. The objective of this study was to determine if disease in preweaned, group-housed dairy calves was associated with behavioral measures of illness. This cross-sectional study included the evaluation of preweaned, group-housed calves (n=206) on 4 farms in Wisconsin, United States. Farm visits included the scoring of key behaviors (abnormal posture when lying or standing, isolation from the group, lethargy, and 2 approach tests that tested the willingness of calves to approach a stationary person) that were hypothesized to be components of sickness behavior. Following the behavior scoring, calves underwent an individual health assessment for bovine respiratory disease, neonatal calf diarrhea, and umbilical infections. Each behavior category was scored as normal (0 points) or abnormal (1 point), and then categories were summed to obtain a total behavior score for each calf. Behavior scores ranged from 0 (normal) to 5 (severely abnormal). A total behavior score of 3 or greater was considered positive for disease. The outcome of a positive or negative test on the behavior score were analyzed using PROC LOGISTIC (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) and the model controlled for calf age and farm. Bovine respiratory disease was significantly associated with a behavior score of 3 or greater. The use of a behavior score shows promise as a screening tool for disease in preweaned calves.

Associations between health status and the probability of approaching a novel object or stationary human in preweaned group-housed dairy calves.

Neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD) and bovine respiratory disease (BRD) are the 2 most prevalent diseases affecting the welfare and productivity of preweaned dairy calves in the United States. Early detection of these diseases improves both the probability of recovery and animal welfare. Group housing of preweaned calves is increasing in popularity and disease detection in a socially competitive environment can be challenging. One method of detecting disease is through the observation of key behaviors that occur during illness. Novel object and stationary human approach tests can be used to measure exploratory behavior, which is decreased during the expression of sickness behavior. The objectives of this study were (1) to determine associations between 4 categories of health status and the probability of calves approaching a novel object or stationary human, and (2) to determine the associations between rectal temperature and the probability of calves approaching. Holstein heifer calves (n = 75) in group housing were tested weekly for the first 6 wk of life for their willingness to approach a novel object (OBJ) or stationary human (SH). After the approach tests, calves were evaluated by research staff using a standardized health-scoring system. Treatment records were obtained from the farm to determine detection of BRD, NCD, and umbilical infections. Associations between probability of approach and BRD status were analyzed using a linear mixed model with a logit-transform (PROC GLIMMIX), controlling for calf as a random effect. All models controlled for week, pen, pen order, and test order. Calves with clinical signs of BRD on test day were 0.5 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.3-0.9] and 0.5 (95% CI = 0.3-0.9) times as likely to approach the OBJ and SH compared with healthy calves, respectively. Calves with a fever (rectal temperature ≥ 39.4°C) were 0.4 (95% CI = 0.2-0.8) and 0.4 (95% CI = 0.1-0.7) times as likely to approach the OBJ and SH compared with calves without fever, respectively. Calves that were recovering from NCD on test day, but were not showing clinical signs of NCD, were 0.4 (95% CI = 0.2-0.9) times as likely to approach SH, compared with healthy calves. These results suggest that approach tests may be useful for the identification of calves with clinical signs of BRD and calves with a fever in group housing.

Sjögren's syndrome of the parotid gland: value of diffusion-weighted echo-planar MRI for diagnosis at an early stage based on MR sialography grading in comparison with healthy volunteers.

PURPOSE: To investigate the value of diffusion-weighted echo-planar imaging (DW-EPI) for quantifying functional changes of the parotid gland in Sjögren's disease and to evaluate whether ADC mapping allows for early diagnosis based on MR sialography grading. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using a DW-EPI sequence at 1.5 T (b-factors: 0, 500 and 1000 sec/mm (2)), the parotid glands of 52 healthy volunteers and 13 patients with histologically verified affection of Sjögren's disease were examined. All scans were performed prior to and following gustatory stimulation with 5 ml of lemon juice. ADC maps were evaluated by placing an inordinate region-of-interest (ROI) enclosing the entire parotid gland. Sjögren's disease was graded based on MR sialography findings using a 4-point grading-scale. Statistics included student t-test and kappa-analysis. RESULTS: In healthy volunteers mean ADCs of 1.14 x 10 (-3 )mm (2) /sec before and 1.2 x 10 (-3) mm (2) /sec after stimulation were observed. Higher ADCs were determined for early-stage Sjögren's disease, averaging 1.22 x 10 (-3) mm (2) /sec before and 1.29 x 10 (-3) mm (2) /sec after stimulation. Advanced disease revealed significantly lower ADCs (0.97 x 10 (-3) mm (2) /sec (p = 0.002) before and 1.01 x 10 (-3) mm (2) /sec (p < 0.001) after stimulation). CONCLUSION: DW-EPI seems to display functional changes of the parotid gland affected by Sjögren's disease. Combined with MR sialography, it might be a useful tool for discriminating healthy from affected glands and seems to allow differentiation between the early and advanced disease.

[Ultrafast MR sialography: comparison of two coil systems including an alternative surface coil]. / Ultraschnelle MR-Sialografie: Intraindividueller Vergleich einer Oberflächenempfangs- mit einer konventionellen Kopf-Hals-Spule.

PURPOSE: To compare the visualization of salivary ducts by ultrafast magnetic resonance sialography (MR sialography) using an alternative surface coil and a conventional head-neck coil. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In 11 healthy volunteers, ultrafast MR sialography (single shot turbo spin echo; acquisition time, 2.8 s) was performed before and after oral application of a sialogogue. Each subject received examinations with both a bilateral surface coil (SC) and a conventional head-neck coil (HNC). The depiction of parotideal and submandibular duct systems was graded from 1 to 5 (5 = poor) by four independent radiologists. ANOVA served for statistical analysis of duct rankings, and interobserver variability was determined by Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC). RESULTS: With an excellent ICC of 0.96, both coil systems offered symmetric visualization of salivary ducts, and the image quality increased after oral application of sialogogue (p < 0.001). In total, the overall rating was worse for SC than for HNC (2.13 +/- 1.24 vs. 1.45 +/- 0.65, p < 0.001). SC was especially inferior in depiction of submandibular and extraglandular duct components compared to HNC (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Most notably due to the reduced visualization of extraglandular and submandibular ducts, the specific surface coil used in this study was inferior in image quality and does not constitute a reasonable alternative to conventional coil systems.

Value of apparent diffusion coefficient calculation before and after gustatory stimulation in the diagnosis of acute or chronic parotitis.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the value of diffusion-weighted (DW) echo-planar imaging (EPI) for quantifying physiological changes of the parotid gland before and after gustatory stimulation in patients suffering from acute or chronic recurrent inflammation in comparison with healthy volunteers. Using a DW-EPI sequence at 1.5 T, parotid glands of 19 consecutive patients with acute (n=14) and chronic (n=5) inflammation of parotid glands and 52 healthy volunteers were examined. Magnetic-resonance (MR) images were obtained before and after gustatory stimulation with 5 cc of lemon juice. In volunteers mean ADC values of 1.14 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s before and 1.2 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s after gustatory stimulation were observed. In acute inflammation ADC values were higher before [1.22 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s (p=0.006)] and after stimulation [1.32 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s (p<0.001)]. Before stimulation ADC differences between chronic inflammation (1.05 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s) and healthy volunteers (p=0.04) as well as between acute and chronic inflammation (p=0.005) were statistically significant. No differences were detected after stimulation between chronic inflammation (1.2 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s) and healthy volunteers (p=0.94) and between acute and chronic inflammation (p=0.15), respectively. DW-EPI seems to display the physiological changes of the parotid gland in patients suffering from acute or chronic inflammation and might be useful for discriminating healthy from affected glands.

Monitoring of gustatory stimulation of salivary glands by diffusion-weighted MR imaging: comparison of 1.5T and 3T.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Our aim was to compare different field strengths monitoring physiologic changes due to oral stimulation of parotid glands by using diffusion-weighted (DW) echo-planar imaging (EPI). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-seven healthy volunteers were examined with a DW-EPI sequence at 1.5T and 3T before and after oral stimulation with commercially available lemon juice. The b factors used were 0, 500, and 1000 s/mm(2). Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) maps were evaluated with a manually placed region of interest including the entire parotid gland. For comparison of results, a Student t test was used on the basis of the mean of the volunteer median values. To compare both field strengths, we calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient (r). RESULTS: DW-EPI MR imaging visualized the parotid glands of all volunteers. With 1.5T, the mean ADC before stimulation was 1.12 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s +/- 0.08 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s. After stimulation with lemon juice, the ADC increased to 1.18 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s +/- 0.09 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s. For 3T, the ADC before stimulation was 1.14 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s +/- 0.04 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s, with an increase to 1.17 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s +/- 0.05 x 10(-3) mm(2)/s after stimulation. For both field strengths, the increase in ADC after stimulation was significant (P < .001). High correlations between both field strengths were found pre- and poststimulation (r = 0.955, and 0.936, respectively). CONCLUSION: DW-EPI MR imaging allows monitoring of physiologic changes due to oral stimulation of parotid glands by using DW imaging with high correlation between 1.5T and 3T.

[MR sialography: evaluation of an ultra-fast sequence in consideration of a parallel acquisition technique and different functional conditions in patients with salivary gland diseases]. / MR-Sialographie: Prospektive Evaluation ultraschneller Sequenzen mit paralleler Bildgebung und oraler Stimulation bei Patienten.

PURPOSE: To evaluate an ultra-fast sequence for MR sialography requiring no post-processing and to compare the acquisition technique regarding the effect of oral stimulation with a parallel acquisition technique in patients with salivary gland diseases. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 128 patients with salivary gland disease were prospectively examined using a 1.5-T superconducting system with a 30 mT/m maximum gradient capability and a maximum slew rate of 125 mT/m/sec. A single-shot turbo-spin-echo sequence (ss-TSE) with an acquisition time of 2.8 sec was used in transverse and oblique sagittal orientation. All images were obtained with and without a parallel imaging technique. The evaluation of the ductal system of the parotid and submandibular gland was performed using a visual scale of 1-5 for each side. The images were assessed by two independent experienced radiologists. An ANOVA with post-hoc comparisons and an overall two tailed significance level of p = 0.05 was used for the statistical evaluation. An intraclass correlation was computed to evaluate interobserver variability and a correlation of > 0.8 was determined, thereby indicating a high correlation. RESULTS: Depending on the diagnosed diseases and the absence of abruption of the ducts, all parts of excretory ducts were able to be visualized in all patients using the developed technique with an overall rating for all ducts of 2.70 (SD +/- 0.89). A high correlation was achieved between the two observers with an intraclass correlation of 0.73. Oral application of a sialogogum improved the visibility of excretory ducts significantly (p < 0.001). In contrast, the use of a parallel imaging technique led to a significant decrease in image quality (p = 0,011). CONCLUSION: The applied ss-TSE for MR sialography allows fast and sufficient visualization of the excretory ducts of the main salivary glands in patients, and no elaborate post-processing is required. Use of an oral sialogogum is suggested to improve the results of MR sialography.

[Functional imaging of submandibular glands: diffusion-weighted echo-planar MRI before and after stimulation]. / Diffusionsgewichtete MRT zur Funktionsdiagnostik der Glandula submandibularis.

PURPOSE: To investigate the feasibility of diffusion-weighted (DWI) echo-planar imaging (EPI) to depict the submandibular glands and to measure different functional conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-seven healthy volunteers were examined. Diffusion weighted sequence was performed prior to stimulation. Exactly 30 seconds after a commercially available lemon juice was given orally, the diffusion weighted sequence was repeated. All examinations were performed by using a 1.5-T superconducting system with a 30 mT/m maximum gradient capability and maximum slew rate of 125 mT/m/sec (Magnetom Symphony, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). The lower part of the circularly polarized (CP) head coil and a standard two-element CP neck array coil were used. The flexibility of the neck array coil allowed positioning the N1 element (upper part of the coil) right next to the submandibular gland. The axial diffusion-weighted EPI (echo planar imaging) sequence was performed using a matrix of 119 x 128, a field of view of 250 x 250 mm (pixel size 2.1 x 1.95 mm), a section thickness of 5 mm with an interslice gap of 1 mm. The b factors used were 0 sec/mm(2), 500 sec/ mm(2) and 1000 sec/mm(2). Apparent diffusion coefficiant (ADC) maps were digitally transferred to MRIcro (Chris Rorden, Universitiy of Nottingham, Great Britain). After detecting the submandibular glands a region of interest (ROI) was placed manually exactly within the boarder of both submandibular glands, excluding the external carotid artery on ADC maps. These procedures were performed on all ADC slices the submandibular glands could be differentiated in before and after oral stimulation. For statistical comparison of results, a student's t-test was performed with an overall two-tailed significance level of p = 0.05. RESULTS: The visualization of the submandibular glands using the diffusion-weighted EPI sequence was possible in all of the 27 volunteers. Prior to oral stimulation an ADC of 1.31 x 10(-3) mm(2)/sec (95 % CI, 1.39 x 10(-3) mm(2)/sec, 1.44 x 10(-3) mm(2)/sec) was calculated which increased to 1.41 x 10(-3) mm(2)/sec (95 % KI, 1.39 x 10(- 3) mm(2)/sec, 1.44 x 10(-3) mm(2)/sec) 30 seconds after stimulation. This increase proved to be significant (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Diffusion-weighted echo-planar MR imaging allows non-invasive quantification of functional changes in the submandibular gland.

Diffusion-weighted echo-planar MRI: a valuable tool for differentiating primary parotid gland tumors?

PURPOSE: To investigate the feasibility of using diffusion-weighted (DW) echo-planar imaging (EPI) for differentiating primary parotid gland tumors. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Fifty consecutive patients with a suspected primary tumor of the parotid gland were examined with a DW EPI sequence (TR 1,500 msec, TE 77 msec, field of view 250 x 250 mm, pixel size 2.10 x 1.95 mm, section thickness 5 mm). The b factors used were 0, 500, and 1,000 sec/mm (2). Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) maps were digitally transferred to MRIcro (Chris Rorden, University of Nottingham, Great Britain) and evaluated with a manually placed irregular region of interest (ROI) containing the entire tumor. Additionally, the contralateral, non affected parotid gland was measured and a circular ROI containing 100 - 200 pixels was placed in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) next to the spinal cord in every patient. For comparison of the results, the two-tailed Student's t test was used, based on the median ADC values for each patient, and a p-value <.05 was determined to indicate statistical significance. RESULTS: In 45 patients, a primary neoplasm of the parotid gland could be histologically verified. For the non-affected parotid glands of all 45 evaluated patients, the mean ADC value was 1.14 x 10 ( - 3) mm (2)/sec +/- 0.12 x 10 ( - 3) mm (2)/sec (mean +/- standard deviation). Seven different entities of parotid gland tumors were histologically discriminated. Pleomorphic adenomas (2.14 x 10 ( - 3) mm (2)/sec +/- 0.11 x 10 ( - 3) mm (2)/sec), Warthin tumors (0.85 x 10 ( - 3) mm (2)/sec +/- 0.1 x 10 ( - 3) mm (2)/sec), and mucoepidermoid carcinomas (1.04 x 10 ( - 3) mm (2)/sec +/- 0.3 x 10 ( - 3) mm (2)/sec) showed statistically significant different ADC values in comparison to all other evaluated tumors (p .001), and also among each other (p <.001). Additionally, ADC values presented by lipomas were statistically significant compared to all other entities (p <.001 to .015). Among all other [corrected] primary malignant parotid gland tumors, no statistically significant ADC values could be observed (p .18 to 1). CONCLUSION: Diffusion-weighted echo-planar MRI seems to be a valuable tool for differentiating benign from malignant primary parotid gland tumors.

[MR-sialography: optimisation and evaluation of an ultra-fast sequence in parallel acquisition technique and different functional conditions of salivary glands]. / MR-Sialographie: Optimierung und Bewertung ultraschneller Sequenzen mit paralleler Bildgebung und oraler Stimulation.

PURPOSE: To optimise a fast sequence for MR-sialography and to compare a parallel and non-parallel acquisition technique. Additionally, the effect of oral stimulation regarding the image quality was evaluated. MATERIAL AND METHODS: All examinations were performed by using a 1.5-T superconducting system. After developing a sufficient sequence for MR-sialography, a single-shot turbo-spin-echo sequence (ss-TSE) with an acquisition time of 2.8 sec was used in transverse and oblique sagittal orientation in 27 healthy volunteers. All images were performed with and without parallel imaging technique. The assessment of the ductal system of the submandibular and parotid gland was performed using a 1 to 5 visual scale for each side separately. Images were evaluated by four independent experienced radiologists. For statistical evaluation, an ANOVA with post-hoc comparisons was used with an overall two-tailed significance level of P =.05. For evaluation of interobserver variability, an intraclass correlation was computed and correlation >.08 was determined to indicate a high correlation. RESULTS: All parts of salivary excretal ducts could be visualised in all volunteers, with an overall rating for all ducts of 2.26 (SD +/- 1.09). Between the four observers a high correlation could be obtained with an intraclass correlation of 0.9475. A significant influence regarding the slice angulations could not be obtained (p = 0.74). In all healthy volunteers the visibility of excretory ducts improved significantly after oral application of a Sialogogum (p < 0.001; eta (2) = 0.049). The use of a parallel imaging technique did not lead to an improvement of visualisation, showing a significant loss of image quality compared to an acquisition technique without parallel imaging (p < 0.001; eta (2) = 0.013). CONCLUSION: The optimised ss-TSE MR-sialography seems to be a fast and sufficient technique for visualisation of excretory ducts of the main salivary glands, with no elaborate post-processing needed. To improve results of MR-sialography, it is reasonable to use an oral Sialogogum.

Functional imaging of parotid glands: diffusion-weighted echo-planar MRI before and after stimulation.

PURPOSE: To investigate the feasibility of diffusion-weighted (DW) echo-planar imaging (EPI) for measuring different functional conditions of the parotid gland and to compare different measurement approaches. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Parotid glands of 27 healthy volunteers were examined with a DW EPI sequence (TR 1,500 msec, TE 77 msec, field-of-view 250 x 250 mm, pixel size 2.10 x 1.95 mm, section thickness 5 mm) before and after oral stimulation with commercially available lemon juice. The b factors used were 0, 500, and 1,000 sec/mm (2). Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) maps were digitally transferred to MRIcro (Chris Rorden, University of Nottingham, Great Britain) and evaluated with a manually placed circular region of interest (ROI) containing 100 - 200 pixel. Additional ROIs including the entire parotid gland were placed on either side. The results of both measurements were compared, using the Student's t test based on the median ADC values for each person. A two-tailed p-value of less than.05 was determined to indicate statistical significance. To compare both measurement approaches, the Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) was calculated. RESULTS: Diffusion-weighted echo-planar MR imaging successfully visualized the parotid glands of all volunteers. In a first step, the median ADC value per person was computed. Using ROIs of 100 - 200 pixels, the mean was calculated to be 1.08 x 10 (- 3) mm (2)/sec +/- 0.12 x 10 (- 3) mm (2)/sec for both parotid glands prior to stimulation. After stimulation, the mean ADC was measured at 1.15 x 10 (- 3) mm (2)/sec +/- 0.11 x 10 (- 3) mm (2)/sec for both parotid glands. Evaluating the entire parotid gland, the ADC was 1.12 x 10 (- 3) mm (2)/sec +/- 0.08 x 10 (- 3) mm (2)/sec prior to stimulation, whereas the ADC increased to 1.18 x 10 (- 3) mm (2)/sec +/- 0.09 x 10 (- 3) mm (2)/sec after stimulation with lemon juice. For both types of measurements, the increase in ADC after stimulation proved to be significant (p < 0.001). High correlations between both measurement types were found (r >.83). CONCLUSION: Diffusion-weighted echo-planar MR imaging allows non-invasive quantification of functional changes in the parotid glands.

[Imaging-based anatomy of the neck -- multi-slice CT and MRI]. / Schnittbildanatomie des Halses - Mehrzeilen-Spiral-CT und MRT.

Purpose of this article is to provide accomplishments of the anatomy in the evaluation of pathologic findings is not a mandatory knowledge of every single anatomical structure, but rather a correct attribution of pathology to a single space of the neck. Only with an exact assignment to these spaces the differential diagnoses can be limited to a reasonable quantity to provide support for the referring physician in the ongoing treatment, especially for the planning of the various existing neck dissections. There are multifaceted descriptions of the anatomy of the head and neck region regarding an axial scanning with CT and MRI. Because of their intricacy it is difficult to use these classifications in a daily routine setting. Classifications with nearly as many spaces as anatomical structures provide no adequate support. Based on the various spaces of the head and neck region and additionally the imaging-based lymph node classification the aim of this work is to provide reasonable support in the daily clinical routine regarding the current literature and our own experience.