Purification, Molecular Docking and Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Bioactive Pentacyclic Polyhydroxylated Triterpenoids from Salvia urmiensis.

Triterpenoids, as one of the largest classes of naturally occurring secondary metabolites in higher plants, are of interest due to their high structural diversity and wide range of biological activities. In addition to several promising pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects, a large number of triterpenoids have revealed high potential for cancer therapy through their strong cytotoxicity on cancer cell lines and, also, low toxicity in normal cells. So, this study was aimed at discovering novel and potentially bioactive triterpenoids from the Salvia urmiensis species. For this, an ethyl acetate fraction of the acetone extract of the aerial parts of the plant was chromatographed to yield five novel polyhydroxylated triterpenoids (1: -5: ). Their structure was elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods including 1D (1H, 13C, DEPT-Q) and 2D NMR (COSY, HSQC, HMBC, NOESY) experiments, as well as HRESIMS analysis. Cytotoxic activity of the purified compounds was also investigated by MTT assay against the MCF-7 cancer cell line. Furthermore, a molecular docking analysis was applied to evaluate the inhibition potential of the ligands against the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) protein, which promotes tumor metastasis or affects gene expression in cancer disease. The 1ß,11ß,22α-trihydroxy-olean-12-ene-3-one (compound 4: ) indicated the best activity in both in vitro and in silico assays, with an IC50 value of 32 µM and a docking score value of - 3.976 kcal/mol, respectively.

Sesquiterpene Lactones with Astrodaucane Skeleton from Astrodaucus orientalis.

Four sesquiterpene lactones, astrodaucanolide A - D (1: -4: ) with unique structures, toghether with two known phenylpropanoid esters (5: and 6: ) were isolated from a flower extract of Astrodaucus orientalis. The structures were established by 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRESIMS), and the absolute configuration of 1: -4: was determined by electronic circular dichroism (ECD). Compounds 1: -4: novel architecture represents a new class of sesquiterpenes with new skeleton. A putative biosynthetic pathway for their scaffold is proposed with a germacryl cation as the precursor. The suggested biosynthesis pathway is similar to that of eudesmane sesquiterpenes with a different direction of protonation which then leads to the new skeleton, named astrodaucane by the 1,2-methyl migration.

Molecular Networking-Guided Isolation of New Etzionin-Type Diketopiperazine Hydroxamates from the Persian Gulf Sponge Cliona celata.

The Persian Gulf is a unique and biologically diverse marine environment dominated by invertebrates. In continuation of our research interest in the chemistry and biological activity of marine sponges from the Persian Gulf, we selected the excavating sponge Cliona celata for detailed metabolome analyses, in vitro bioactivity screening, and chemical isolation studies. A UPLC-MS/MS (MS2) molecular-networking-based dereplication strategy allowed annotation and structural prediction of various diketopiperazines (DKPs) and etzionin-type diketopiperazine hydroxamates (DKPHs) in the crude sponge extract. The molecular-networking-guided isolation approach applied to the crude extract afforded the DKPH etzionin (1) and its two new derivatives, clioetzionin A (2) and clioetzionin B (3). Another new modified DKP (4) was identified by MS/MS analyses but could not be isolated in sufficient quantities to confirm its structure. The chemical characterization of the purified DKPHs 1-3 was performed by a combination of 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, HRMS, HRMS/MS, and [α]D analyses. Compounds 1 and 2 exhibited broad antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer activities, with IC50 values ranging from 19.6 to 159.1 µM. This is the first study investigating the chemical constituents of a C. celata specimen from the Persian Gulf. It is also the first report of full spectroscopic data of etzionin based on extensive spectroscopic analyses.

Two seco-norabietane diterpenoids with unprecedented skeletons from the roots of Salvia abrotanoides (Kar.) Sytsma.

Two seco-norabietane diterpenes with unique structures, namely abrotafuran and abrotacid, were isolated from the roots of Salvia abrotanoides (Kar.) Sytsma. The compounds were characterized by 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic techniques, ECD, and HR-ESIMS experiments. Plausible biosynthetic pathways of abrotafuran and abrotacid were proposed. These compounds did not exhibit antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, the rearranged seco-norabietane abrotafuran showed antiproliferative activity on HeLa (cervical carcinoma) and Jurkat (T-cell leukemia) cell lines.

Evaluation of apoptotic effects of mPEG-b-PLGA coated iron oxide nanoparticles as a eupatorin carrier on DU-145 and LNCaP human prostate cancer cell lines.

Many studies have so far confirmed the efficiency of phytochemicals in the treatment of prostate cancer. Eupatorin, a flavonoid with a wide range of phytomedical activities, suppresses proliferation of and induces apoptosis of multiple cancer cell lines. However, low solubility, poor bioavailability, and rapid degradation limit its efficacy. The aim of our study was to evaluate whether the use of mPEG-b-poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) coated iron oxide nanoparticles as a carrier could enhance the therapeutic efficacy of eupatorin in DU-145 and LNcaP human prostate cancer cell lines. Nanoparticles were prepared by the co-precipitation method and were fully characterized for morphology, surface charge, particle size, drug loading, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro drug-release profile. The inhibitory effect of nanoparticles on cell viability was evaluated by MTT test. Apoptosis was then determined by Hoechest staining, cell cycle analysis, NO production, annexin/propidium iodide (PI) assay, and Western blotting. The results indicated that eupatorin was successfully entrapped in Fe3O4@mPEG-b-PLGA nanoparticles with an efficacy of (90.99 ± 2.1)%. The nanoparticle's size was around (58.5 ± 4) nm with a negative surface charge [(-34.16 ± 1.3) mV]. In vitro release investigation showed a 30% initial burst release of eupatorin in 24 h, followed by sustained release over 200 h. The MTT assay indicated that eupatorin-loaded Fe3O4@mPEG-b-PLGA nanoparticles exhibited a significant decrease in the growth rate of DU-145 and LNcaP cells and their IC50 concentrations were 100 µM and 75 µM, respectively. Next, apoptosis was confirmed by nuclear condensation, enhancement of cell population in the sub-G1 phase and increased NO level. Annexin/PI analysis demonstrated that eupatorin-loaded Fe3O4@mPEG-b-PLGA nanoparticles could increase apoptosis and decrease necrosis frequency. Finally, Western blotting analysis confirmed these results and showed that Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and the cleaved caspase-3 level were up-regulated by the designing nanoparticles. Encapsulation of eupatorin in Fe3O4@mPEG-b-PLGA nanoparticles increased its anticancer effects in prostate cancer cell lines as compared to free eupatorin. Based on these results, this formulation can provide a sustained eupatorin-delivery system for cancer treatment with the drug remaining active at a significantly lower dose, making it a suitable candidate for pharmacological uses.

Terpenoid Constituents of Perovskia artemisioides Aerial Parts with Inhibitory Effects on Bacterial Biofilm Growth.

Perovskia artemisioides is a perennial and aromatic plant distributed in the Baluchestan region of Iran. In the present work, an n-hexane extract of P. artemisioides aerial parts showed excellent capabilities to both inhibit the formation of biofilms by different Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens and block the cell metabolism within microbial biofilms. To correlate the activity of the extract with the biologically active compounds present, first an analytical approach based on LC-HRMS/MSn was carried out. The metabolite profile obtained guided the isolation of 21 compounds, among which two sesquiterpenes (8 and 9) and one diterpene (10) were found to be new. The antimicrobial activity of the isolated compounds was evaluated by determining how they were able not only to reduce the growth of different Gram-positive and Gram-negative human bacteria and phytopathogens but also to inhibit the formation of biofilms by these bacteria and affect the metabolism of microbial cells present within the biofilms. With the aim of correlating the activity exhibited by the extract with the concentration levels of the constituent compounds, a quantitative determination was carried out by an analytical approach based on LC-ESI/QTrap/MS.

Purified compounds from marine organism sea pen induce apoptosis in human breast cancer cell MDA-MB-231 and cervical cancer cell Hela.

Marine organisms are an important source of chemical compounds which are appropriate for use as therapeutic agents. Among them, Sea pens produce valuable chemical compounds being used as anti-cancer drugs. The aim of this study was to investigate anti-cancer property of extracted and purified compounds from marine organism Sea pen and evaluate their effects on inducing of apoptosis. The extracts were prepared from dried colony of Virgularia gustaviana. The compounds (3ß)-Cholest,5en,3ol (cholesterol) (15 mg), Hexadecanoic acid (2.5 mg) and 2-Hexadecanol (10.7 mg) were identified by GC-MS and NMR. The cytotoxic effects of the compounds were evaluated on Hela and MDA-Mb-231 human cancer cell lines with MTT assay. Immunocytochemistry and Western Blot analyses were used to evaluate the expression of apoptosis related markers Caspase 3, Caspase 8, Bax and BCL2 in cancer cells after treating with three compounds. The purified compounds reduced viability of human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 and human cervical cancer cell line Hela concentration-dependently. 2-Hexadecanol reduced significantly the viability of both cancer cell lines in comparison to the other purified compounds. Treatment of cancer cells with the three purified compounds increased the expression of caspase-3, caspase-8 and Bax proteins and decreased the relative Bcl-2/Bax ratio, demonstrating induction of apoptosis as possible mechanism of action. According to the results, three purified compounds inhibit the growth of cancer cells by inducing of apoptosis pathway; an effect which needs to be further investigated in the future studies.

Health risk assessment of neonicotinoid insecticide residues in pistachio using a QuEChERS-based method in combination with HPLC-UV.

There is an increasing need to address the potential risks arising from combined exposures to multiple residues from pesticides in the diet. Pesticide residue-related pollution is a problem that arises because of the increased use of pesticides in agriculture to meet the growing demands of food production. In this study, pesticide residue data were obtained based on an optimized extraction method. For this purpose, we established a method based on quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) extraction for simultaneous determination of imidacloprid (IMI) and acetamiprid (ACT) in pistachio nuts. The parameters influencing the QuEChERS method were the sample-to-water ratio and adsorbent amounts. As a result, both were optimized to improve the recovery of the analytes as well as the clean-up efficiency of the pistachio matrix. Our results indicated that a freeze-out step and use of primary and secondary amines as an adsorbent led to much cleaner chromatograms with lower baseline drift, without using graphitized carbon black and C18 -based adsorbent, which reduced both cost and time of analysis. Following extraction, the pesticide residues were separated and quantified by reverse-phase HPLC. For validation purposes, recovery studies were carried out using a concentration range from 20 to 2500 µg/L at nine levels. The suitable linearity, precision, and accuracy were obtained with HPLC-UV with recoveries of 70.37%-89.80% for IMI and 81.05%-113.57% for ACT, with relative standard deviations <12%. The validated method was successfully applied to the analysis of pistachio samples collected from a field trial to estimate maximum residue limits. There was no significant health risk for consumers via pistachio consumption.

Antiprotozoal Diterpenes from Perovskia abrotanoides.

As part of a screening for new antiparasitic natural products from Iranian plants, n-hexane and ethyl acetate extracts from the aerial parts of Perovskia abrotanoides were found to exhibit strong inhibitory activity against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and Leishmania donovani. The activity was tracked by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-based activity profiling. Preparative isolation by a combination of silica gel column chromatography and HPLC afforded 17 diterpenoids (1: -17: ), including 14 abietane-, two icetexane-, and one isopimarane-type derivatives. Among these, (5R,10S)-11-hydroxy-12-methoxy-20-norabieta-8,11,13-triene (2: ), 12-hydroxy-norabieta-1(10),8,11,13-tetraene-1,11-furan (6: ), and 12-methoxybarbatusol (9: ) were new compounds, the structure of which was established by comprehensive spectroscopic data analysis (one- and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance, high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, electronic circular dichroism). The antiprotozoal activity of the isolated compounds was evaluated against T. b. rhodesiense, Trypanosoma cruzi, L. donovani, and Plasmodium falciparum. Selectivity indexes (SI) were calculated in comparison to cytotoxicity on rat myoblast (L6) cells. Particularly active were 7α-ethoxyrosmanol (4: ) with an IC50 of 0.8 µM against T. b. rhodesiense (SI 14.9) and an IC50 of 1.8 µM (SI 6.9) against L. donovani, ferruginol (8: ) with an IC50 of 2.9 µM (SI 19.2) against P. falciparum, and miltiodiol (10: ) with an IC50 of 0.5 µM (SI 10.5) against T. b. rhodesiense. None of the compounds exhibited selective toxicity against T. cruzi (SI ≤ 1.6).

Labdane Diterpenoids from Salvia leriifolia: Absolute Configuration, Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activities.

Fractionation of an n-hexane extract of the aerial parts of Salvia leriifolia led to the isolation of two new (1, 2) and two known (3, 4) labdane diterpenoids, together with three other known compounds. The structures were established by a combination of 1D and 2D NMR, and HRESIMS. The structures of 1 and 3 were confirmed by single-crystal X-ray analysis. The absolute configuration of 1-4 was established by electronic circular dichroism spectroscopy. Compounds 1-4 were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. Labdanes 3 and 4 were additionally tested against MDA-MB231 human breast cancer and DU-145 human prostate cancer cell lines. Compound 4 showed IC50 values of 25, 50, and 50 µM against MCF-7, MDA-MB231, and DU-145 cells, respectively. Compounds 1-4 were tested for activity against gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria. Compound 3 showed an MIC of 213 µM against methicillin-resistant S. aureus.

New ursane triterpenoids from Salvia urmiensis Bunge: Absolute configuration and anti-proliferative activity.

Two new triterpenoids, urmiensolide B (1) and urmiensic acid (2), with rare carbon skeletons together with three known compounds were isolated from the aerial parts of Salvia urmiensis Bunge, an endemic species of Iran. The structures were established by a combination of 1D and 2D NMR, and HRESIMS, and in the case of 2 and 3, their structures were confirmed by single-crystal X-ray analysis. The absolute configuration of 2 was established by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectra. The new compounds were evaluated for their anti-proliferative activities against A549 and MCF-7 human cancer cell lines. Compounds 1 and 2 showed IC50 values of 2.8 and 1.6 µM against MCF-7 cells, respectively.

Seco-ursane-type Triterpenoids from Salvia urmiensis with Apoptosis-inducing Activity.

Fractionation of an acetone extract of the aerial parts of Salvia urmiensis led to the isolation of a new (1) and a known (2) E-seco-ursane-type triterpenoid, together with four other known compounds. Their structures were established by 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance as well as high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. The effect of compounds 1 and 2 on cell viability of HeLa and HepG2 cells was investigated with the MTT assay. We also report the mechanism of action of compound 2 as a potential anticancer agent in HeLa cells. Bcl-2, Bax, and caspases signaling pathway expression in HeLa cells was analyzed. HeLa cells treated with compound 2 were assayed for the cleavage of poly-(ADP-ribose)-polymerase and DNA fragmentation resulting in nuclear shrinkage. Taken together, these results suggest that treatment of HeLa cells with compound 2 can induce apoptosis by regulating Bcl-2 family members and by suppressing caspase cascade activation.

A targeted metabolomics approach toward understanding metabolic variations in rice under pesticide stress.

Diazinon insecticide is widely applied throughout rice (Oryza sativa L.) fields in Iran. However, concerns are now being raised about its potential adverse impacts on rice fields. In this study, a time-course metabolic change in rice plants was investigated after diazinon treatment using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and subsequently the statistical strategy of random forest (RF) was performed in order to find the stress-associated effects. According to the results, a wide range of metabolites were dynamically varied as a result of the plant response to diazinon such as biosynthesis and metabolism of sugars, amino acids, organic acids, and phenylpropanoids, all correlating with the exposure time. Plant response was involved in multiple metabolic pathways, most of which were correlated with the exposure time. In this study, RF was explored as a potential multivariate method for GC-MS analysis of metabolomics data of rice (O. sativa L.) plants under diazinon stress; more than 31 metabolites were quantitatively determined, and time-course metabolic response of the plant during different days after treatment was measured. Results demonstrated RF as a potential multivariate method for GC-MS analysis of changes in plant metabolome under insecticide stress.

Labdane diterpenoids from Salvia reuterana.

Three labdane diterpenoids, 14α-hydroxy-15-chlorosclareol (1), 14α-hydroxy-15-acetoxysclareol (2), and 6ß-hydroxy-14α-epoxysclareol (3), together with the known diterpenoids sclareol (4), 6ß-hydroxysclareol (5), and 14α-epoxysclareol (6), as well as other common plant constituents were isolated from the n-hexane extract of aerial parts of Salvia reuterana. The structures of the new compounds were established by extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic techniques. Compound 1 is the first example of a halogenated terpenoid in the genus Salvia. Compounds 1-6 were also tested for their inhibitory activity toward HeLa and MCF-7 cell lines. Preliminary structure-activity relationship studies indicated that double bond moiety in sclareol is an essential feature for activity and modification of this moiety significantly decreased the cytotoxic activity of the resulting compounds.

Anticancer effect of calycopterin via PI3K/Akt and MAPK signaling pathways, ROS-mediated pathway and mitochondrial dysfunction in hepatoblastoma cancer (HepG2) cells.

Calycopterin is a flavonoid compound isolated from Dracocephalum kotschyi that has multiple medical uses, as an antispasmodic, analgesic, anti-hyperlipidemic, and immunomodulatory agents. However, its biological activity and the mechanism of action are poorly investigated. Herein, we investigated the apoptotic effect of calycopterin against the human hepatoblastoma cancer cell (HepG2) line. We discovered that calycopterin-treated HepG2 cells were killed off by apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner within 24 h, and was characterized by the appearance of nuclear shrinkage, cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and DNA fragmentation. Calycopterin treatment also affected HepG2 cell viability: (a) by inhibiting cell cycle progression at the G2/M transition leading to growth arrest and apoptosis; (b) by decreasing the expression of mitotic kinase cdc2, mitotic phosphatase cdc25c, mitotic cyclin B1, and apoptotic factors pro-caspases-3 and -9; and (c) increasing the levels of mitochondrial apoptotic-related proteins, intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species, and nitric oxide. We further examined the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK 1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and p-38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and found they all were significantly increased in HepG2 cells treated with calycopterin. Interestingly, we discovered that treated cells had significantly lower Akt phosphorylation. This mode of action for calycopterin in our study provides strong support that inhibition of PI3K/Akt and activation of MAPKs are pivotal in G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of human hepatocarcinoma cells mediated by calycopterin.

Involvement of p-CREB and phase II detoxifying enzyme system in neuroprotection mediated by the flavonoid calycopterin isolated from Dracocephalum kotschyi.

PURPOSE: There is an increasing amount of experimental evidence that oxidative stress has a central role in the neuropathology of neurodegenerative diseases. It has been suggested that the loss of cell function results from the increased oxidative damage to proteins and DNA. Herein, we investigated the effect of a natural neuroprotective flavonoid, calycopterin, on H2O2-induced disruption of phase II detoxifying enzyme system and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation. METHODS: PC12 cells were treated with 25, 50 and 100 µM of calycopterin for 3h, followed by adding H2O2 (150 µM) for 24 h. The extent of apoptosis was assessed by comet assay. The level of phosphorylated CREB, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS) and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) were measured by western blot method. The concentration of glutathione (GSH) was determined in whole cell lysate using dithionitrobenzoic acid method. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was measured by colorimetric assay. RESULT: Morphological analysis of protection induced by calycopterin, determined by comet assay, showed that calycopterin reduced DNA in tail. We found that H2O2 decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), while, calycopterin prevented this decrease in MMP in presence of H2O2. In H2O2-treated cells, calycopterin also suppressed cytochrome C release to cytosol that is necessary for maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis in survived cells. Moreover, calycopterin, in presence of H2O2 inhibited the decrease caused by oxidative stress in stress-sensing transcription factors, CREB and Nrf2, which play an important role in antioxidant capacity of the cell. There was also an increase in γ-GCS and HO-1 levels in calycopterin pretreated cells. In the presence of H2O2, calycopterin inhibited decrease in GSH level and SOD activity. CONCLUSION: We provided documentation of neuroprotective effect of a natural flavone, calycopterin, against H2O2-induced oxidative stress in differentiated PC12 cells by modulating the level of CREB phosphorylation and Nrf2 pathway.

Increase of autophagy and attenuation of apoptosis by Salvigenin promote survival of SH-SY5Y cells following treatment with H2O2.

Oxidative stress is a major component of harmful cascades activated in neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we tried to elucidate the possible neuroprotective effect of Salvigenin, a natural polyphenolic compound, on oxidative stress-induced apoptosis and autophagy in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. We measured cell viability by MTT test and found that 25 µM is the best protective concentration of Salvigenin. GSH and SOD assays suggested that Salvigenin activates antioxidant factors. At the same time, measurement of ER stress-associated proteins including calpain and caspase-12 showed the ability of Salvigenin to decrease ER stress. We found that Salvigenin could decrease the apoptotic factors. Salvigenin inhibited H(2)O(2)-induced caspase-3 which is a hallmark of apoptosis in addition to reducing Bax\Bcl-2 ratio by 1.45 fold. Additionally, Salvigenin increased the levels of autophagic factors. Our results showed an increase in LC3-II/LC3-I ratio, Atg7, and Atg12 in the presence of 25 µM of Salvigenin by about 1.28, 1.25, and 1.54 folds, respectively, compared to H(2)O(2)-treated cells. So it seems that H(2)O(2) cytotoxicity mainly results from apoptosis. Besides, Salvigenin helps cells to survive by inhibiting apoptosis and enhancing autophagy that opens a new horizon for the future experiments.

A lupane triterpenoid and other constituents of Salvia eremophila.

Phytochemical investigation of the aerial parts of Salvia eremophila led to the isolation of a lupane triterpenoid, 3ß, 20-dihydroxylupane-28-oic acid (1), together with eight other compounds, comprising three diterpene, two triterpene, two flavonoids and a steroidal glucoside. Their structures were elucidated by interpretation of their one-dimensional and two-dimensional NMR spectra and completed by the analysis of the HRESIMS data. Compounds 1, 2-4 and 8 were evaluated for their cytotoxicities against five human tumour cell lines. Compounds 1 and 3 hold a good potential for use in future studies due to their anti-cancer properties.

Calycopterin promotes survival and outgrowth of neuron-like PC12 cells by attenuation of oxidative- and ER-stress-induced apoptosis along with inflammatory response.

There is mounting evidence implicating the role of oxidative stress induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS) in neurodegenerative disease, including Alzheimer's disease. Herein we investigated the neuroprotective potential of a natural flavonoid, calycopterin, against H(2)O(2)-induced cell death in differentiated PC12 cells. We pretreated PC12 cells with 25, 50, and 100 µM calycopterin followed by the addition of H(2)O(2) as an oxidative stress agent. We measured cell viability by the MTT test and found that 50 µM is the best protective concentration of calycopterin. Moreover, we measured six different parameters of neurite outgrowth. Interestingly, we found that calycopterin not only protects PC12 cells against H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis but also defends against the destructive effect of oxidative stress on the criteria of neural differentiation. Calycopterin decreased ER stress-associated proteins including calpain and caspase-12, and suppressed ERK, JNK, and p38 MAPK phosphorylation. Moreover, calycopterin inhibited H(2)O(2)-induced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB, a known regulator of a host of genes involved in specific stress and inflammatory responses. This observation was perfectly in agreement with the decrease of COX-2 and TNF-α levels. Calycopterin reduced intracellular ROS levels and increased catalase activity. The protective effect of this compound could represent a promising approach for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.