Design of aging intervention studies: the NIA interventions testing program.

The field of biogerontology has made great strides towards understanding the biological processes underlying aging, and the time is ripe to look towards applying this knowledge to the pursuit of aging interventions. Identification of safe, inexpensive, and non-invasive interventions that slow the aging process and promote healthy aging could have a significant impact on quality of life and health care expenditures for the aged. While there is a plethora of supplements and interventions on the market that purport to slow aging, the evidence to validate such claims is generally lacking. Here we describe the development of an aging interventions testing program funded by the National Institute on Aging (NIA) to test candidate interventions in a model system. The development of this program highlights the challenges of long-term intervention studies and provides approaches to cope with the stringent requirements of a multi-site testing program.

The neurobiology of aging.

Basic principles of the neurobiology of aging were reviewed within selected topic areas chosen for their potential relevance to epileptogenesis in the aging brain. The availability of National Institute on Aging-supported aged mouse and rat strains and other biological resources for studies of aging and age-associated diseases was presented, and general principles of animal use in gerontological research were discussed. Neurobiological changes during normal brain aging were compared and contrasted with neuropathological events of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and age-associated memory impairment (AAMI). Major themes addressed were the loss of synaptic connections as vulnerable neurons die and circuits deteriorate in AD, the absence of significant neuron loss but potential synaptic alteration in the same circuits in AAMI, and the effects of decreased estrogen on normal aging. The "calcium hypothesis of brain aging" was examined by a review of calcium dyshomeostasis and synaptic communication in aged hippocampus, with particular emphasis on the role of L-type voltage-gated calcium channels during normal aging. Established and potential mechanisms of hippocampal plasticity during aging were discussed, including long-term potentiation, changes in functional connectivity, and increased gap junctions, the latter possibly being related to enhanced network excitability. Lastly, application of microarray gene chip technology to aging brain studies was presented and use of the hippocampal "zipper slice" preparation to study aged neurons was described.

Program for testing biological interventions to promote healthy aging.

The National Institute on Aging (NIA) sponsored a workshop on September, 1999 to discuss the feasibility of establishing a program to evaluate potential intervention strategies to decelerate the rate of aging in mammals. The ultimate goal is to identify promising interventions in animals that might lead to clinical trials in humans. The participants discussed various animal models, biological endpoints and possible structure of such a program. The ability to implement such a program will require a decision by NIA staff about whether the anticipated benefits to be derived from identification of effective interventions under well controlled conditions in an animal model, in this case the mouse, would justify the anticipated cost of the testing program.

Principles of animal use for gerontological research.

This essay presents some practical advice and suggestions for those who wish to use mice and rats in experiments on the biology of aging. Ten principles set forth guidance on choice of ages, choice of stocks, the importance of specific pathogen-free status, the uses of necropsy data, the dangers of pooling samples from different individuals, planning ahead for loss of aged mice to death and disease, the use of cost-adjusted power calculations, and the dangers of inferring causal associations from correlated age effects.

Multiple cellular phenotypes in an insertional mutation in mouse affecting bone development.

The 6093 line of transgenic mice exhibits altered bone development as a result of an insertional mutation by the transgene. Female transgenic mice show a marked kyphosis as early as 2 weeks of age. Vertebrae from female mice have lower total bone area and mineral content than age-matched, gender-matched controls, although the bone mineral density is not changed. The femur and tibia exhibit the opposite effect-increased bone area and mineral content. Fluorescent bone label experiments indicated an increased rate of bone mineral deposition in the femur during the early postnatal growth period, and bone marrow from femurs of 6093 females had increased numbers of fibroblast colony-forming units. Transgenic females also are obese and have altered thymocyte development, suggesting that the insertional mutation affects multiple cell populations. We hypothesize that these phenotypes arise as a result of an alteration in the function or developmental potential of a stromal cell or mesenchymal stem cell.

Aberrant dendrite growth in central nervous system white matter induced by a mutant proteolipid protein transgene.

Transgenic mice were produced that carry a construct encoding a mutant form of the DM20 isoform of myelin proteolipid protein. The transgene is under the direction of the human Plp gene promoter, which has previously been shown to direct tissue-specific expression of transgenes. Two lines of mice were generated with this construct, both of which express the transgene at extremely low levels. Central nervous system myelination proceeds normally in the transgenic mice. However, in aged transgenic mice, areas of dendrite processes synapsed with axonal termini were observed within the white matter of the spinal cord. This phenotype was accompanied by focal areas of astrocytic hypertrophy and an increase in apoptotic cell death in white matter but not gray matter. One interpretation of these findings is that expression of the mutant DM20 alters signaling between oligodendrocytes and neurons, producing abnormal neurite outgrowth.

Evidence that CNS hypomyelination does not cause death of jimpy-msd mutant mice.

Mice expressing three of the proteolipid protein (Plp) mutations in the mouse (jimpy, jimpy-msd, and jimpy-4J) all have a severe deficiency of CNS myelin and oligodendrocytes (OLs), and die sometime in their 4th postnatal week. The prevailing view has been that the animals' shortened life span and lack of myelin are causally related. Here we describe the survival of jimpy-msd males for as long as postnatal day (P) 210. Although these spontaneously occurring longer-lived jimpy-msd males show a 2- to 8-fold increase in numbers of myelinated axons in many CNS regions, this does not protect them from a later but still premature death. Investigating the cause of premature death may reveal previously undiscovered properties of the myelin genes or the cells that express them, or perhaps additional unsuspected cellular responses that contribute to the disease. This study identifies small accumulations of inflammatory cells in the brain parenchyma of jimpy-msd mice as young as P14 and as old as P60, suggesting that the pathology of the disease produced by at least this Plp mutation may be far more complex than has been previously recognized.

Myelin proteolipid protein: function in myelin structure is distinct from its role in oligodendrocyte development.

The myelin proteolipid proteins PLP and DM20 are essential for the compaction of central nervous system myelin and they play an important role in the maturation of the oligodendrocyte. The specific function of the less abundant DM20 isoform is still unknown, but rescue experiments previously indicated that both isoforms are necessary for oligodendrocyte maturation. In vitro experiments have suggested DM20 may assist in the translocation of PLP into the membrane. We tested this hypothesis in vivo, by investigating whether wild-type PLP derived from a transgene could be incorporated into the myelin membrane of Plp mutant rumpshaker mice. We previously demonstrated that expression of the PLP transgene alone in a more severe Plp mutant, jimpy mouse, did not result in PLP incorporation into the myelin. Here we report that there was significantly more PLP in white matter from rumpshaker expressing the PLP transgene than their nontransgenic rumpshaker littermates and that myelin structure was improved. The delay in oligodendrocyte development was not alleviated by expression of the PLP transgene however, supporting an essential role for DM20 in oligodendrocyte maturation.

Axonal swellings and degeneration in mice lacking the major proteolipid of myelin.

Glial cells produce myelin and contribute to axonal morphology in the nervous system. Two myelin membrane proteolipids, PLP and DM20, were shown to be essential for the integrity of myelinated axons. In the absence of PLP-DM20, mice assembled compact myelin sheaths but subsequently developed widespread axonal swellings and degeneration, associated predominantly with small-caliber nerve fibers. Similar swellings were absent in dysmyelinated shiverer mice, which lack myelin basic protein (MBP), but recurred in MBP*PLP double mutants. Thus, fiber degeneration, which was probably secondary to impaired axonal transport, could indicate that myelinated axons require local oligodendroglial support.

Modification of Schwann cell phenotype with Plp transgenes: evidence that the PLP and DM20 isoproteins are targeted to different cellular domains.

The X-linked proteolipid protein (Plp) gene encodes PLP, the major protein of central nervous system myelin, and its alternative RNA splice product, termed DM20. Schwann cells also express the Plp gene but, in contrast to oligodendrocytes, neither protein is incorporated into peripheral myelin. In the present study, we use different transgenes encoding PLP and DM20 to modify the expression of these proteins in myelin-forming Schwann cells of wild-type and jimpy mice. Increasing the level of PLP, either singly or in combination with DM20, leads to the incorporation of PLP into the compacted myelin sheath; however, DM20 always remains restricted to cytoplasmic regions of the Schwann cell. The insertion of PLP into the membrane does not appear to depend on a cooperativity of the two isoproteins. The presence of PLP does not visibly alter the ultrastructure and periodicity of peripheral nervous system (PNS) myelin. The results indicate that the absence of PLP in the peripheral myelin of normal animals most probably reflects the very low amounts of this isoprotein synthesised by Schwann cells. The preferential incorporation of PLP, as opposed to DM20, in peripheral myelin may indicate that a myelin targeting signal is present in the PLP-specific region of the molecule.

Myelin proteolipid DM20: evidence for function independent of myelination.

DM20 is a proteolipid protein that has been extensively studied for its role in central nervous system myelination. We demonstrate that DM20 expression is widespread and independent of myelination. In the Schwann cells and neurons of the peripheral nervous system, DM20 is not incorporated into the membrane as it is in the central nervous system (CNS), but remains cytoplasmic. Mutations that severely reduce the amount of DM20 mRNA in CNS myelinating cells have little effect on DM20 expression in nonmyelinating cells of the peripheral nervous system and embryonic CNS. Most importantly, the combination of wild-type DM20 from the endogenous X-linked gene and mutant DM20 expressed from an autosomal transgene results in embryonic lethality. We propose a function for DM20 to explain these diverse findings based on the ability of DM20 to form multimeric complexes, and hypothesize that the DM20 complex participates in intracellular molecular transport.

Insights into thymic purine metabolism and adenosine deaminase deficiency revealed by transgenic mice overexpressing ecto-5'-nucleotidase (CD73).

The adenosine producing enzyme ecto-5'-nucleotidase (5'-NT) is not normally expressed during thymocyte development until the medullary stage. To determine whether earlier expression would lead to adenosine accumulation and/or be deleterious for thymocyte maturation, thymic purine metabolism, and T cell differentiation were studied in lckNT transgenic mice overexpressing 5'-NT in cortical thymocytes under the control of the lck proximal promoter. In spite of a 100-fold elevation in thymic 5'-NT activity, transgenic adenosine levels were unchanged and T cell immunity was normal. Inosine, the product of adenosine deamination, was elevated more than twofold, however, indicating that adenosine deaminase (ADA) can prevent the accumulation of adenosine, even with a dramatic increase in 5'-NT activity, and demonstrating the availability of 5'-NT substrates in the thymus for the first time. Thymic adenosine concentrations of mice treated with the ADA inhibitor 2'-deoxycoformycin (dCF) were elevated over 30-fold, suggesting that high ADA activity, rather than an absence of 5'-NT, is mainly responsible for low thymic adenosine levels. The adenosine concentrations in dCF-treated mice are sufficient to cause adenosine receptor-mediated thymocyte apoptosis in vitro, suggesting that adenosine accumulation could play a role in ADA-deficient severe combined immunodeficiency.

Normal temporal and spatial distribution of oligodendrocyte progenitors in the myelin-deficient (md) rat.

A point mutation in exon 3 of the proteolipid protein (PLP) gene of the myelin-deficient (md) rat leads to a failure of oligodendrocyte maturation and early death of oligodendrocytes, resulting in dysmyelination. It has been suggested that an alternative-splice isoform of PLP, known as DM-20, might be expressed in oligodendrocyte progenitors in the embryonic central nervous system (CNS), raising the possibility that early development of the oligodendrocyte lineage might also be affected in the md rat. To test this suggestion, we visualized oligodendrocyte progenitors in the embryonic md rat spinal cord and brain by in situ hybridization with a probe to the platelet-derived growth factor alpha receptor (PDGFR). We could detect no abnormalities in the time of first appearance of oligodendrocyte precursors, nor in their subsequent proliferation and dispersal throughout the CNS. These data strongly suggest that the PLP mutation in the md rat primarily or exclusively affects the later stages of oligodendrocyte lineage.

Jimpy-4J mouse has a missense mutation in exon 2 of the Plp gene.

We previously showed that the jimpy-4J mouse mutation is located on the X chromosome, in or closely linked to the proteolipid protein (Plp) gene. The phenotype is characterized by the most severe hypomyelination of any of the naturally occurring myelin mutant mice, sharp reduction in oligodendrocyte number, and virtual absence of PLP protein. Affected animals show tremor, seizures, and die at about 24 postnatal days. We now report that sequencing of Plp genomic and cDNAs identifies a single nucleotide substitution in exon 2 that predicts an Ala38Ser substitutions in a hydrophilic region of PLP/DM20 protein close to a transmembrane domain. This mutation occurs in a very different region of the mouse Plp gene than that jimpy-msd mutations, yet all three produce qualitatively similar phenotypes.

Analysis of hypermutation in immunoglobulin heavy chain passenger transgenes.

Somatic hypermutation of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes plays a critical role in the maturation of the human antibody response. The molecular basis of this important process is, however, unknown. To identify cis-acting sequences that initiate and target hypermutation, we have made three minitransgenes containing different portions of an Ig heavy chain (IgH) locus. Each transgene is a passenger, bearing a nonsense mutation preventing its translation; thus, transgene mutations reflect the endogenous mutational process and are not subject to affinity selection. To study transgenes after their circulation through the compartment associated with hypermutation in vivo, we rescued B cells as hybridomas after hyperimmunizing mice with the hapten 4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl acetyl (NP). Hybridoma transgene and endogenous variable regions were amplified by polymerase chain reaction, subcloned, and sequenced. Endogenous anti-NP VDJ regions show the expected, at times extensive degree of base substitution. In mice bearing the smallest construct, which includes 2.4 kb of 5' IgH sequences, a rearranged VDJ region, the 5' matrix attachment region, and the intron enhancer, one of four evaluable hybridomas demonstrates two base substitutions in the V segment of one transgene copy. The two larger constructs include additional 3' IgH sequences (an alpha constant region and the 3' enhancer) and either the original VDJ segment or a substituted T cell receptor beta segment. Ten hybridomas derived from mice bearing these larger constructs demonstrate no evidence of targeted mutation, despite demonstrable transgene transcription in all hybridomas. In our system, mutation of a rearranged VDJ segment and surrounding promoter/enhancer regions is not increased by the juxtaposition of a constant region segment and the IgH 3' enhancer.

Genomic DNA analysis from mouse toe lysates.

The protocol described in this report provides a simple, accurate and efficient assay for detection of transgenes and mutations in large colonies of rodents, using crude lysates prepared from the digit cut from the animals for identification purposes. This can be done as early as 6 days of age, minimizing trauma to the mice and allowing assays to be completed long before weaning.

Molecular analysis of glial cell development in the canine 'shaking pup' mutant.

The shaking pup, a canine mutant, carries a point mutation in the myelin proteolipid protein (PLP) gene that causes dysmyelination of the central nervous system (CNS) with resultant tremor, seizures, and other persistent neurological deficits. The developmental potential of glial cells in the shaking pup CNS and peripheral nervous system (PNS) was evaluated by quantitative analysis of the expression of several glial-specific genes. All of the myelin-associated genes demonstrated developmental patterns of expression similar to those observed in the controls, but at significantly reduced levels. Expression of the genes for the major CNS myelin proteins, PLP and the myelin basic protein, are most dramatically affected in the shaking pup, although reduced expression levels are observed for other oligodendrocyte-specific genes such as 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'phosphodiesterase and glucose phosphate dehydrogenase. The pattern of gene expression in the shaking pup indicates that the oligodendrocytes experience an inhibition in development after the myelination program has begun. There appears to be little evidence for an astrocytic response to the dysmyelinating condition at the RNA level, but we present evidence for ectopic expression of P0 mRNA in the CNS. Expression of the P0 and PLP genes in the sciatic nerve appears to be normal, reinforcing previous reports that PNS myelination is unaffected by the mutation in the PLP gene.

Embryonic development of central nervous system myelination in a reptilian species, Eumeces fasciatus.

The myelin proteolipid proteins are a vital component of the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS), contributing essential functions to the development of the myelinating cells of the CNS and to the structure of CNS myelin. Alternative splicing of the proteolipid protein (PLP) gene to produce two related isoforms occurs in Mammalia, Aves, and Reptilia, but not Amphibia. As part of a long-term investigation into the function of the different isoforms of PLP, embryonic development, myelination, and PLP gene expression in reptilian CNS were examined. PLP gene expression was already substantial by day 19 (stage 39) of the 27-day Eumeces fasciatus egg incubation period. By day 21 of incubation, also stage 39, PLP mRNA was at peak levels; there was a significant amount of CNS myelination as demonstrated by electron microscopy of the spinal cord; and the reflexive motor response was evident. Although most axons were myelinated by the time of hatching, myelin sheaths continued to increase in size and compactness after hatching. The correlation of physiological development, CNS myelination, and expression of the PLP gene in the lizard corresponded well with the developmental pattern seen in mammals.

Oligodendrocyte survival and function in the long-lived strain of the myelin deficient rat.

This study has examined cellular and molecular aspects of glial cell function in a newly described long-lived myelin deficient rat mutant. In contrast to the shorter-lived mutants which died at 25-30 days, the longer-lived mutant rats lived to 75-80 days of age. Despite living longer, these mutants had a similar frequency of seizures to their younger counterparts. In the spinal cord and optic nerves of the older mutants, myelinated fibres in similar numbers to those seen in the younger myelin deficient rats were present. However, the total glial cell numbers were markedly reduced with few remaining normal appearing oligodendrocytes, and very few microglia compared to the younger mutants. In addition, little or no cell death or division was seen in the longer-lived rats. However, there was some evidence of ongoing myelination and the persistence of immature oligodendrocytes or their progenitors in the older mutant. There was some continued myelin gene expression, although this was at much reduced levels compared to normal, with proteolipid protein and myelin basic protein being most affected. In situ hybridization analysis for proteolipid protein mRNA showed that few proteolipid protein expressing oligodendrocytes remained in the 70-80-day-old mutant. Polymerase chain reaction analysis of exon 3 of the long-lived mutant revealed the same point mutation as described in the younger myelin deficient rat.