Propofol-mediated loss of consciousness disrupts predictive routing and local field phase modulation of neural activity.

Predictive coding is a fundamental function of the cortex. The predictive routing model proposes a neurophysiological implementation for predictive coding. Predictions are fed back from the deep-layer cortex via alpha/beta (8 to 30 Hz) oscillations. They inhibit the gamma (40 to 100 Hz) and spiking that feed sensory inputs forward. Unpredicted inputs arrive in circuits unprepared by alpha/beta, resulting in enhanced gamma and spiking. To test the predictive routing model and its role in consciousness, we collected data from intracranial recordings of macaque monkeys during passive presentation of auditory oddballs before and after propofol-mediated loss of consciousness (LOC). In line with the predictive routing model, alpha/beta oscillations in the awake state served to inhibit the processing of predictable stimuli. Propofol-mediated LOC eliminated alpha/beta modulation by a predictable stimulus in the sensory cortex and alpha/beta coherence between sensory and frontal areas. As a result, oddball stimuli evoked enhanced gamma power, late period (>200 ms from stimulus onset) spiking, and superficial layer sinks in the sensory cortex. LOC also resulted in diminished decodability of pattern-level prediction error signals in the higher-order cortex. Therefore, the auditory cortex was in a disinhibited state during propofol-mediated LOC. However, despite these enhanced feedforward responses in the auditory cortex, there was a loss of differential spiking to oddballs in the higher-order cortex. This may be a consequence of a loss of within-area and interareal spike-field coupling in the alpha/beta and gamma frequency bands. These results provide strong constraints for current theories of consciousness.

Retigabine, a potassium channel opener, restores thalamocortical neuron functionality in a murine model of autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

BACKGROUND: Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune neurodegenerative disease, whose primary hallmark is the occurrence of inflammatory lesions in white and grey matter structures. Increasing evidence in MS patients and respective murine models reported an impaired ionic homeostasis driven by inflammatory-demyelination, thereby profoundly affecting signal propagation. However, the impact of a focal inflammatory lesion on single-cell and network functionality has hitherto not been fully elucidated. OBJECTIVES: In this study, we sought to determine the consequences of a localized cortical inflammatory lesion on the excitability and firing pattern of thalamic neurons in the auditory system. Moreover, we tested the neuroprotective effect of Retigabine (RTG), a specific Kv7 channel opener, on disease outcome. METHODS: To resemble the human disease, we focally administered pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IFN-γ, in the primary auditory cortex (A1) of MOG35-55 immunized mice. Thereafter, we investigated the impact of the induced inflammatory milieu on afferent thalamocortical (TC) neurons, by performing ex vivo recordings. Moreover, we explored the effect of Kv7 channel modulation with RTG on auditory information processing, using in vivo electrophysiological approaches. RESULTS: Our results revealed that a cortical inflammatory lesion profoundly affected the excitability and firing pattern of neighboring TC neurons. Noteworthy, RTG restored control-like values and TC tonotopic mapping. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that RTG treatment might robustly mitigate inflammation-induced altered excitability and preserve ascending information processing.

Effect of lidocaine on salicylate-induced tinnitus in guinea pigs: A focus on the auditory cortex.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the intravenous administration of lidocaine in the auditory cortex after the systemic administration of salicylate. Healthy male albino Hartley guinea pigs were divided into two groups. The control group received only lidocaine, whereas the experimental group received lidocaine after checking for the effects of salicylate. Extracellular recordings of spikes in the primary auditory cortex and dorsocaudal areas in healthy albino Hartley guinea pigs were continuously documented (pre- and post-lidocaine, pre- and post-salicylate, and post-salicylate after adding lidocaine to post-salicylate). We recorded 160 single units in the primary auditory cortex from five guinea pigs and 155 single units in the dorsocaudal area from another five guinea pigs to confirm the effects of lidocaine on untreated animals. No significant change was detected in either the threshold or Q10dB value after lidocaine administration in the primary auditory cortex and dorsocaudal areas. Spontaneous firing activity significantly decreased after lidocaine administration in the primary auditory cortex and dorsocaudal areas. Next, we recorded 160 single units in the primary auditory cortex from five guinea pigs and 137 single units in the dorsocaudal area from another five guinea pigs to determine the effects of lidocaine on salicylate-treated animals. The threshold was significantly elevated after salicylate administration; however, no additional change was detected after adding lidocaine to the primary auditory cortex and dorsocaudal areas. Regarding the Q10dB value, lidocaine negated the significant changes induced by salicylate in the primary auditory cortex and dorsocaudal areas. Moreover, lidocaine negated the significant changes in spontaneous firing activities induced by salicylate in the primary auditory cortex and dorsocaudal areas. In conclusion, changes in the Q10dB value and spontaneous firing activities induced by salicylate administration are abolished by lidocaine administration, suggesting that these changes are related to the presence of tinnitus.

Vitamin C inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation and delays the development of age-related hearing loss in male C57BL/6 mice.

The efficacy of vitamin C in age-related hearing loss, i.e., presbycusis, remains debatable. On a separate note, inflammation induced by the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is involved in the progression of presbycusis. In this study, we investigated the effect of vitamin C on male C57BL/6 mice's presbycusis and NLRP3 inflammasome. The results showed that vitamin C treatment improved hearing, reduced the production of inflammatory factors, inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and decreased cytosolic mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in the C57BL/6 mouse cochlea, inferior colliculus, and auditory cortex. According to this study, vitamin C protects auditory function in male C57BL/6 presbycusis mice through reducing mtDNA release, inhibiting the NLRP3 inflammasome activation in the auditory pathway. Our study provides a theoretical basis for applying vitamin C to treat presbycusis.

Ionic mechanisms involved in arginine vasopressin-mediated excitation of auditory cortical and thalamic neurons.

The axons containing arginine vasopressin (AVP) from the hypothalamus innervate a variety of structures including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hippocampus and amygdala. A plethora amount of evidence indicates that activation of the V1a subtype of the vasopressin receptors facilitates anxiety-like and fear responses. As an essential structure involved in fear and anxiety responses, the amygdala, especially the lateral nucleus of amygdala (LA), receives glutamatergic innervations from the auditory cortex and auditory thalamus where high density of V1a receptors have been detected. However, the roles and mechanisms of AVP in these two important areas have not been determined, which prevents the understanding of the mechanisms whereby V1a activation augments anxiety and fear responses. Here, we used coronal brain slices and studied the effects of AVP on neuronal activities of the auditory cortical and thalamic neurons. Our results indicate that activation of V1a receptors excited both auditory cortical and thalamic neurons. In the auditory cortical neurons, AVP increased neuronal excitability by depressing multiple subtypes of inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channels including the Kir2 subfamily, the ATP-sensitive K+ channels and the G protein-gated inwardly rectifying K+ (GIRK) channels, whereas activation of V1a receptors excited the auditory thalamic neurons by depressing the Kir2 subfamily of the Kir channels as well as activating the hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels and a persistent Na+ channel. Our results may help explain the roles of V1a receptors in facilitating fear and anxiety responses. Categories: Cell Physiology.

Click train elicited local gamma synchrony: differing performance and pharmacological responsivity of primary auditory and prefrontal cortices.

Auditory neural networks in the brain naturally entrain to rhythmic stimuli. Such synchronization is an accessible index of local network performance as captured by EEG. Across species, click trains delivered âˆ¼ 40 Hz show strong entrainment with primary auditory cortex (Actx) being a principal source. Imaging studies have revealed additional cortical sources, but it is unclear if they are functionally distinct. Since auditory processing evolves hierarchically, we hypothesized that local synchrony would differ between between primary and association cortices. In female SD rats (N = 12), we recorded 40 Hz click train-elicited gamma oscillations using epidural electrodes situated at two distinct sites; one above the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and another above the Actx, after dosing with saline (1 ml/kg, sc) or the NMDA antagonist, MK801 (0.025, 0.05 or 0.1 mpk), in a blocked crossover design. Post-saline, both regions showed a strong 40 Hz auditory steady state response (ASSR). The latencies for the N1 response were âˆ¼ 16 ms (Actx) and âˆ¼ 34 ms (PFC). Narrow band (38-42 Hz) gamma oscillations appeared rapidly (<40 ms from stim onset at Actx but in a more delayed fashion (∼200 ms) at PFC. MK801 augmented gamma synchrony at Actx while dose-dependently disrupting at the PFC. Event-related gamma (but not beta) coherence, an index of long-distance connectivity, was disrupted by MK801. In conclusion, local network gamma synchrony in a higher order association cortex performs differently from that of the primary auditory cortex. We discuss these findings in the context of evolving sound processing across the cortical hierarchy.

Psilocybin decreases neural responsiveness and increases functional connectivity while preserving pure-tone frequency selectivity in mouse auditory cortex.

Psilocybin is a serotonergic psychedelic believed to have therapeutic potential for neuropsychiatric conditions. Despite well-documented prevalence of perceptual alterations, hallucinations, and synesthesia associated with psychedelic experiences, little is known about how psilocybin affects sensory cortex or alters the activity of neurons in awake animals. To investigate, we conducted two-photon imaging experiments in auditory cortex of awake mice and collected video of free-roaming mouse behavior, both at baseline and during psilocybin treatment. In comparison with pre-dose neural activity, a 2 mg/kg ip dose of psilocybin initially increased the amplitude of neural responses to sound. Thirty minutes post-dose, behavioral activity and neural response amplitudes decreased, yet functional connectivity increased. In contrast, control mice given intraperitoneal saline injections showed no significant changes in either neural or behavioral activity across conditions. Notably, neuronal stimulus selectivity remained stable during psilocybin treatment, for both tonotopic cortical maps and single-cell pure-tone frequency tuning curves. Our results mirror similar findings regarding the effects of serotonergic psychedelics in visual cortex and suggest that psilocybin modulates the balance of intrinsic versus stimulus-driven influences on neural activity in auditory cortex.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Recent studies have shown promising therapeutic potential for psychedelics in treating neuropsychiatric conditions. Musical experience during psilocybin-assisted therapy is predictive of treatment outcome, yet little is known about how psilocybin affects auditory processing. Here, we conducted two-photon imaging experiments in auditory cortex of awake mice that received a dose of psilocybin. Our results suggest that psilocybin modulates the roles of intrinsic neural activity versus stimulus-driven influences on auditory perception.

Cortical dysmorphology and reduced cortico-collicular projections in an animal model of autism spectrum disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental disability that includes sensory disturbances. Hearing is frequently affected and ranges from deafness to hypersensitivity. In utero exposure to the antiepileptic valproic acid is associated with increased risk of autism spectrum disorder in humans and timed valproic acid exposure is a biologically relevant and validated animal model of autism spectrum disorder. Valproic acid-exposed rats have fewer neurons in their auditory brainstem and thalamus, fewer calbindin-positive neurons, reduced ascending projections to the midbrain and thalamus, elevated thresholds, and delayed auditory brainstem responses. Additionally, in the auditory cortex, valproic acid exposure results in abnormal responses, decreased phase-locking, elevated thresholds, and abnormal tonotopic maps. We therefore hypothesized that in utero, valproic acid exposure would result in fewer neurons in auditory cortex, neuronal dysmorphology, fewer calbindin-positive neurons, and reduced connectivity. We approached this hypothesis using morphometric analyses, immunohistochemistry, and retrograde tract tracing. We found thinner cortical layers but no changes in the density of neurons, smaller pyramidal and non-pyramidal neurons in several regions, fewer neurons immunoreactive for calbindin-positive, and fewer cortical neurons projecting to the inferior colliculus. These results support the widespread impact of the auditory system in autism spectrum disorder and valproic acid-exposed animals and emphasize the utility of simple, noninvasive auditory screening for autism spectrum disorder.

40†Hz Steady-State Response in Human Auditory Cortex Is Shaped by Gabaergic Neuronal Inhibition.

The 40 Hz auditory steady-state response (ASSR), an oscillatory brain response to periodically modulated auditory stimuli, is a promising, noninvasive physiological biomarker for schizophrenia and related neuropsychiatric disorders. The 40 Hz ASSR might be amplified by synaptic interactions in cortical circuits, which are, in turn, disturbed in neuropsychiatric disorders. Here, we tested whether the 40 Hz ASSR in the human auditory cortex depends on two key synaptic components of neuronal interactions within cortical circuits: excitation via N-methyl-aspartate glutamate (NMDA) receptors and inhibition via gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA) receptors. We combined magnetoencephalography (MEG) recordings with placebo-controlled, low-dose pharmacological interventions in the same healthy human participants (13 males, 7 females). All participants exhibited a robust 40 Hz ASSR in auditory cortices, especially in the right hemisphere, under a placebo. The GABAA receptor-agonist lorazepam increased the amplitude of the 40 Hz ASSR, while no effect was detectable under the NMDA blocker memantine. Our findings indicate that the 40 Hz ASSR in the auditory cortex involves synaptic (and likely intracortical) inhibition via the GABAA receptor, thus highlighting its utility as a mechanistic signature of cortical circuit dysfunctions involving GABAergic inhibition.

A hippocampus dependent neural circuit loop underlying the generation of auditory mismatch negativity.

Extracting relevant information and transforming it into appropriate behavior, is a fundamental brain function, and requires the coordination between the sensory and cognitive systems, however, the underlying mechanisms of interplay between sensory and cognition systems remain largely unknown. Here, we developed a mouse model for mimicking human auditory mismatch negativity (MMN), a well-characterized translational biomarker for schizophrenia, and an index of early auditory information processing. We found that a subanesthetic dose of ketamine decreased the amplitude of MMN in adult mice. Using pharmacological and chemogenetic approaches, we identified an auditory cortex-entorhinal cortex-hippocampus neural circuit loop that is required for the generation of MMN. In addition, we found that inhibition of dCA1→MEC circuit impaired the auditory related fear discrimination. Moreover, we found that ketamine induced MMN deficiency by inhibition of long-range GABAergic projection from the CA1 region of the dorsal hippocampus to the medial entorhinal cortex. These results provided circuit insights for ketamine effects and early auditory information processing. As the entorhinal cortex is the interface between the neocortex and hippocampus, and the hippocampus is critical for the formation, consolidation, and retrieval of episodic memories and other cognition, our results provide a neural mechanism for the interplay between the sensory and cognition systems.

Effects of two inhibitors of metabolic glutamate receptor 5 on expression of endogenous homer scaffold protein 1 in the auditory cortex of mice with tinnitus.

Tinnitus is deemed as the result of abnormal neural activities in the brain, and Homer proteins are expressed in the brain that convey nociception. The expression of Homer in tinnitus has not been studied. We hypothesized that expression of Homer in the auditory cortex was altered after tinnitus treatment. Mice were injected with sodium salicylate to induce tinnitus. Expression of Homer was detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, western blotting, and immunohistochemistry assays. We found that Homer1 expression was upregulated in the auditory cortex of mice with tinnitus, while expression of Homer2 or Homer3 exhibited no significant alteration. Effects of two inhibitors of metabolic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5), noncompetitive 2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP) and competitive α-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine (MCPG), on the tinnitus scores of the mice and on Homer1 expression were detected. MPEP significantly reduced tinnitus scores and suppressed Homer1 expression in a concentration dependent manner. MCPG had no significant effects on tinnitus scores or Homer1 expression. In conclusion, Homer1 expression was upregulated in the auditory cortex of mice after tinnitus, and was suppressed by noncompetitive mGluR5 inhibitor MPEP, but not competitive mGluR5 inhibitor MCPG.

Memory Specific to Temporal Features of Sound Is Formed by Cue-Selective Enhancements in Temporal Coding Enabled by Inhibition of an Epigenetic Regulator.

Recent investigation of memory-related functions in the auditory system have capitalized on the use of memory-modulating molecules to probe the relationship between memory and substrates of memory in auditory system coding. For example, epigenetic mechanisms, which regulate gene expression necessary for memory consolidation, are powerful modulators of learning-induced neuroplasticity and long-term memory (LTM) formation. Inhibition of the epigenetic regulator histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) promotes LTM, which is highly specific for spectral features of sound. The present work demonstrates for the first time that HDAC3 inhibition also enables memory for temporal features of sound. Adult male rats trained in an amplitude modulation (AM) rate discrimination task and treated with a selective inhibitor of HDAC3 formed memory that was highly specific to the AM rate paired with reward. Sound-specific memory revealed behaviorally was associated with a signal-specific enhancement in temporal coding in the auditory system; stronger phase locking that was specific to the rewarded AM rate was revealed in both the surface-recorded frequency following response and auditory cortical multiunit activity in rats treated with the HDAC3 inhibitor. Furthermore, HDAC3 inhibition increased trial-to-trial cortical response consistency (relative to naive and trained vehicle-treated rats), which generalized across different AM rates. Stronger signal-specific phase locking correlated with individual behavioral differences in memory specificity for the AM signal. These findings support that epigenetic mechanisms regulate activity-dependent processes that enhance discriminability of sensory cues encoded into LTM in both spectral and temporal domains, which may be important for remembering spectrotemporal features of sounds, for example, as in human voices and speech.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Epigenetic mechanisms have recently been implicated in memory and information processing. Here, we use a pharmacological inhibitor of HDAC3 in a sensory model of learning to reveal the ability of HDAC3 to enable precise memory for amplitude-modulated sound cues. In so doing, we uncover neural substrates for memory's specificity for temporal sound cues. Memory specificity was supported by auditory cortical changes in temporal coding, including greater response consistency and stronger phase locking. HDAC3 appears to regulate effects across domains that determine specific cue saliency for behavior. Thus, epigenetic players may gate how sensory information is stored in long-term memory and can be leveraged to reveal the neural substrates of sensory details stored in memory.

Laser-Induced Apoptosis of Corticothalamic Neurons in Layer VI of Auditory Cortex Impact on Cortical Frequency Processing.

Corticofugal projections outnumber subcortical input projections by far. However, the specific role for signal processing of corticofugal feedback is still less well understood in comparisonto the feedforward projection. Here, we lesioned corticothalamic (CT) neurons in layers V and/or VI of the auditory cortex of Mongolian gerbils by laser-induced photolysis to investigate their contribution to cortical activation patterns. We have used laminar current-source density (CSD) recordings of tone-evoked responses and could show that, particularly, lesion of CT neurons in layer VI affected cortical frequency processing. Specifically, we found a decreased gain of best-frequency input in thalamocortical (TC)-recipient input layers that correlated with the relative lesion of layer VI neurons, but not layer V neurons. Using cortical silencing with the GABA a -agonist muscimol and layer-specific intracortical microstimulation (ICMS), we found that direct activation of infragranular layers recruited a local recurrent cortico-thalamo-cortical loop of synaptic input. This recurrent feedback was also only interrupted when lesioning layer VI neurons, but not cells in layer V. Our study thereby shows distinct roles of these two types of CT neurons suggesting a particular impact of CT feedback from layer VI to affect the local feedforward frequency processing in auditory cortex.

Norepinephrine in the avian auditory cortex enhances developmental song learning.

Sensory learning during critical periods in development has lasting effects on behavior. Neuromodulators like dopamine and norepinephrine (NE) have been implicated in various forms of sensory learning, but little is known about their contribution to sensory learning during critical periods. Songbirds like the zebra finch communicate with each other using vocal signals (e.g., songs) that are learned during a critical period in development, and the first crucial step in song learning is memorizing the sound of an adult conspecific's (tutor's) song. Here, we analyzed the extent to which NE modulates the auditory learning of a tutor's song and the fidelity of song imitation. Specifically, we paired infusions of NE or vehicle into the caudomedial nidopallium (NCM) with brief epochs of song tutoring. We analyzed the effect of NE in juvenile zebra finches that had or had not previously been exposed to song. Regardless of previous exposure to song, juveniles that received NE infusions into NCM during song tutoring produced songs that were more acoustically similar to the tutor song and that incorporated more elements of the tutor song than juveniles with control infusions. These data support the notion that NE can regulate the formation of sensory memories that shape the development of vocal behaviors that are used throughout an organism's life.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Although norepinephrine (NE) has been implicated in various forms of sensory learning, little is known about its contribution to sensory learning during critical periods in development. We reveal that pairing infusions of NE into the avian secondary auditory cortex with brief epochs of song tutoring significantly enhances auditory learning during the critical period for vocal learning. These data highlight the lasting impact of NE on sensory systems, cognition, and behavior.

Model-based prediction of muscarinic receptor function from auditory mismatch negativity responses.

Drugs affecting neuromodulation, for example by dopamine or acetylcholine, take centre stage among therapeutic strategies in psychiatry. These neuromodulators can change both neuronal gain and synaptic plasticity and therefore affect electrophysiological measures. An important goal for clinical diagnostics is to exploit this effect in the reverse direction, i.e., to infer the status of specific neuromodulatory systems from electrophysiological measures. In this study, we provide proof-of-concept that the functional status of cholinergic (specifically muscarinic) receptors can be inferred from electrophysiological data using generative (dynamic causal) models. To this end, we used epidural EEG recordings over two auditory cortical regions during a mismatch negativity (MMN) paradigm in rats. All animals were treated, across sessions, with muscarinic receptor agonists and antagonists at different doses. Together with a placebo condition, this resulted in five levels of muscarinic receptor status. Using a dynamic causal model - embodying a small network of coupled cortical microcircuits - we estimated synaptic parameters and their change across pharmacological conditions. The ensuing parameter estimates associated with (the neuromodulation of) synaptic efficacy showed both graded muscarinic effects and predictive validity between agonistic and antagonistic pharmacological conditions. This finding illustrates the potential utility of generative models of electrophysiological data as computational assays of muscarinic function. In application to EEG data of patients from heterogeneous spectrum diseases, e.g. schizophrenia, such models might help identify subgroups of patients that respond differentially to cholinergic treatments. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In psychiatry, the vast majority of pharmacological treatments affect actions of neuromodulatory transmitters, e.g. dopamine or acetylcholine. As treatment is largely trial-and-error based, one of the goals for computational psychiatry is to construct mathematical models that can serve as "computational assays" and infer the status of specific neuromodulatory systems in individual patients. This translational neuromodeling strategy has great promise for electrophysiological data in particular but requires careful validation. The present study demonstrates that the functional status of cholinergic (muscarinic) receptors can be inferred from electrophysiological data using dynamic causal models of neural circuits. While accuracy needs to be enhanced and our results must be replicated in larger samples, our current results provide proof-of-concept for computational assays of muscarinic function using EEG.

Nicotine Enhances Amplitude and Consistency of Timing of Responses to Acoustic Trains in A1.

Systemic nicotine enhances neural processing in primary auditory cortex (A1) as determined using tone-evoked, current-source density (CSD) measurements. For example, nicotine enhances the characteristic frequency (CF)-evoked current sink in layer 4 of A1, increasing amplitude and decreasing latency. However, since presenting auditory stimuli within a stream of stimuli increases the complexity of response dynamics, we sought to determine the effects of nicotine on CSD responses to trains of CF stimuli (one-second trains at 2-40 Hz; each train repeated 25 times). CSD recordings were obtained using a 16-channel multiprobe inserted in A1 of urethane/xylazine-anesthetized mice, and analysis focused on two current sinks in the middle (layer 4) and deep (layers 5/6) layers. CF trains produced adaptation of the layer 4 response that was weak at 2 Hz, stronger at 5-10 Hz and complete at 20-40 Hz. In contrast, the layer 5/6 current sink exhibited less adaptation at 2-10 Hz, and simultaneously recorded auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) showed no adaptation even at 40 Hz. Systemic nicotine (2.1 mg/kg) enhanced layer 4 responses throughout the one-second stimulus train at rates ≤10 Hz. Nicotine enhanced both response amplitude within each train and the consistency of response timing across 25 trials. Nicotine did not alter the degree of adaptation over one-second trials, but its effect to increase amplitudes revealed a novel, slower form of adaptation that developed over multiple trials. Nicotine did not affect responses that were fully adapted (20-40 Hz trains), nor did nicotine affect any aspect of the layer 5/6 current sink or ABRs. The overall effect of nicotine in layer 4 was to enhance all responses within each train, to emphasize earlier trials across multiple trials, and to improve the consistency of timing across all trials. These effects may improve processing of complex acoustic streams, including speech, that contain information in the 2-10 Hz range.

The extracellular matrix regulates cortical layer dynamics and cross-columnar frequency integration in the auditory cortex.

In the adult vertebrate brain, enzymatic removal of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is increasingly recognized to promote learning, memory recall, and restorative plasticity. The impact of the ECM on translaminar dynamics during cortical circuit processing is still not understood. Here, we removed the ECM in the primary auditory cortex (ACx) of adult Mongolian gerbils using local injections of hyaluronidase (HYase). Using laminar current-source density (CSD) analysis, we found layer-specific changes of the spatiotemporal synaptic patterns with increased cross-columnar integration and simultaneous weakening of early local sensory input processing within infragranular layers Vb. These changes had an oscillatory fingerprint within beta-band (25-36 Hz) selectively within infragranular layers Vb. To understand the laminar interaction dynamics after ECM digestion, we used time-domain conditional Granger causality (GC) measures to identify the increased drive of supragranular layers towards deeper infragranular layers. These results showed that ECM degradation altered translaminar cortical network dynamics with a stronger supragranular lead of the columnar response profile.

Salicylate decreases the spontaneous firing rate of guinea pig auditory nerve fibres.

Tinnitus has similarities to chronic neuropathic pain where there are changes in the firing rate of different types of afferent neurons. We postulated that one possible cause of tinnitus is a change in the distribution of spontaneous firing rates in at least one type of afferent auditory nerve fibre in anaesthetised guinea pigs. In control animals there was a bimodal distribution of spontaneous rates, but the position of the second mode was different depending upon whether the fibres responded best to high (> 4 kHz) or low (≤4 kHz) frequency tonal stimulation. The simplest and most reliable way of inducing tinnitus in experimental animals is to administer a high dose of sodium salicylate. The distribution of the spontaneous firing rates was different when salicylate (350 mg/kg) was administered, even when the sample was matched for the distribution of characteristic frequencies in the control population. The proportion of medium spontaneous rate fibres (MSR, 1≤ spikes/s ≤20) increased while the proportion of the highest, high spontaneous firing rate fibres (HSR, > 80 spikes/s) decreased following salicylate. The median rate fell from 64.7 spikes/s (control) to 35.4 spikes/s (salicylate); a highly significant change (Kruskal-Wallis test p < 0.001). When the changes were compared with various models of statistical probability, the most accurate model was one where most HSR fibres decreased their firing rate by 32 spikes/s. Thus, we have shown a reduction in the firing rate of HSR fibres that may be related to tinnitus.

Characterization of EGR-1 Expression in the Auditory Cortex Following Kanamycin-Induced Hearing Loss in Mice.

Deprivation of acoustic input during a critical period leads to abnormal auditory development in humans. The molecular basis underlying the susceptibility of auditory cortex to loss of afferent input remains largely unknown. The transcription factor early growth response-1 (EGR-1) expression in the visual cortex has been shown to be crucial in the formation of vision, but the role of EGR-1 during the process of auditory function formation is still unclear. In this study, we presented data showing that EGR-1 was expressed in the neurons of the primary auditory cortex (A1) in mice. We observed that the auditory deprivation induced by kanamycin during the auditory critical period leads to laminar-specific alteration of neuronal distribution and EGR-1 expression in A1. In addition, MK-801 administration inhibited the expression of EGR-1 in A1 and aggravated the abnormal cortical electric response caused by kanamycin injection. Finally, we showed that the expression of PI3K, the phosphorylation of Akt, as well as the phosphorylation of cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB) were decreased in A1 after kanamycin-induced hearing loss. These results characterized the expression of EGR-1 in A1 in response to the acoustic input and suggested the involvement of EGR-1 in auditory function formation.

CDP-choline and galantamine, a personalized α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor targeted treatment for the modulation of speech MMN indexed deviance detection in healthy volunteers: a pilot study.

RATIONALE: The combination of CDP-choline, an α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) agonist, with galantamine, a positive allosteric modulator of nAChRs, is believed to counter the fast desensitization rate of the α7 nAChRs and may be of interest for schizophrenia (SCZ) patients. Beyond the positive and negative clinical symptoms, deficits in early auditory prediction-error processes are also observed in SCZ. Regularity violations activate these mechanisms that are indexed by electroencephalography-derived mismatch negativity (MMN) event-related potentials (ERPs) in response to auditory deviance. OBJECTIVES/METHODS: This pilot study in thirty-three healthy humans assessed the effects of an optimized α7 nAChR strategy combining CDP-choline (500 mg) with galantamine (16 mg) on speech-elicited MMN amplitude and latency measures. The randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, and counterbalanced design with a baseline stratification method allowed for assessment of individual response differences. RESULTS: Increases in MMN generation mediated by the acute CDP-choline/galantamine treatment in individuals with low baseline MMN amplitude for frequency, intensity, duration, and vowel deviants were revealed. CONCLUSIONS: These results, observed primarily at temporal recording sites overlying the auditory cortex, implicate α7 nAChRs in the enhancement of speech deviance detection and warrant further examination with respect to dysfunctional auditory deviance processing in individuals with SCZ.