Methodological guidelines for the calculation of a Water-Energy-Food nexus index for seafood products.

Indicators from life cycle assessment methodologies (i.e., footprints) have emerged as useful tools for identifying and communicating the environmental impacts of a system thanks to they are accessible and intuitive and easy to understand to non-expert public. However, the focus on a single environmental problem is one of their main drawbacks. From this idea arises the concept of Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus, with the aim of raising awareness of the connections between the universal rights to water supply, energy security and food provision. Regarding the latter, the fisheries sector stands out as a fundamental pillar in the fight against malnutrition. In this sense, the European project "blue growth" aims to ensure that the development of the marine sector is not linked to the degradation of its ecosystems. However, although producers and authorities are willing to communicate the sustainability of products, there is still no standard methodology for reporting it. With the purpose of remedying this current situation, this paper aims to provide technical guidance to calculate a single WEF nexus index for ecolabelling seafood products in the European framework (Atlantic area). Therefore, through this, it is expected to create a useful communication channel between producers and consumers through an easy-to-read ecolabel. Nonetheless, certain aspects, such as the footprints selected or the calculation procedures selected have to be reconsidered to refine the methodology proposed, apart from broadening the approach to other food sectors with the aim that the proposed eco-certification can be present in major supply and retail chains.

Environmental footprint of critical agro-export products in the Peruvian hyper-arid coast: A case study for green asparagus and avocado.

Peru has become one of the world's main agricultural hubs for a wide range of fruits and vegetables. Two of these products, avocado and green asparagus, have raised attention in recent years in the international scene from an environmental perspective due to the high amounts of water they require, as well as the long air and marine freighting distances to export these products to Europe, Asia or the US. Consequently, the aim of the current study was to perform an environmental assessment of these two products using two life-cycle methods: carbon and water footprint. For the latter, water scarcity, acidification, eco-toxicity and eutrophication impact categories have been selected for assessment. Inventory data were gathered from six different companies located in different regions of the hyper-arid Peruvian coast. The results report that the products are not carbon intensive and are in line with other similar plant-based products. Conversely, the hyper-arid conditions of the cultivation sites require a large volume of groundwater to fulfill the needs of the crops. Interestingly, even though this may lead to overexploitation of groundwater resources in the absence of appropriate management policies, the low mobility of pollutants, namely pesticides, constitutes a natural barrier to protect the degradation of natural water bodies. Similarly, highly technified irrigation systems have allowed minimizing the amounts of water used per hectare. In conclusion, results from this study may be useful in more concise environmental assessment studies on food products and diets, considering the consumption of these Peruvian products in many countries in the world. Furthermore, results are also important at regional level since they depict the carbon and water performance of these products and can also be accompanied by cross-cutting certification schemes, including Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules Guidance.

Multi-product strategy to enhance the environmental profile of the canning industry towards circular economy.

The sustainable and continued production of enough food to feed the entire world's population is one of the main concerns in the food industry. Spain, and in particular Galicia, which is an eminently fishing region characterised by the consumption of large quantities of fish, both fresh and processed, must face the challenge of shifting its seafood productive fabric towards a circular economy. To achieve this objective, the first task is to demonstrate that circular economy principles allow to reduce the environmental impacts associated with seafood production. In this sense, this study proposes the environmental evaluation of the skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) value chain within a canning industry located in Galicia through the LCA methodology from an attributional perspective, including the valorisation processes for biowaste (edible and inedible by-products). Results indicate that the main crucial subsystems of the value chain are tuna fishing and the canning process, as it was expected considering other similar studies on seafood products. Moreover, this specific case study demonstrates that the multi-product strategy applied to the canning sector is environmentally viable. Thus, although the environmental impacts of the entire system are increased by including further valorisation operations, the environmental loads assigned to the main product (canned tuna) decrease compared to the one-product system by assigning environmental burdens to other value-added products (tuna pâté, fishmeal, and fish oil).

Environmental assessment of menus for toddlers serviced at nursery canteen following the Atlantic diet recommendations.

Menus served at public services can be considered as a good opportunity for consumers to demand a service that ensures healthy and environmentally friendly food. It is especially in the sector of nurseries and schools, where these demands make the most sense since they call for the protection of particularly vulnerable population: children. The purpose of this study is to analyze the biweekly menus served at a public Spanish nursery canteen considering the link with the two most recognized environmental indicators: the consumptive water footprint (WF) and the carbon footprint (CF). The WF and CF of the menus vary considerably between menus (619-1359 L·menu-1 and 0.75-2.95 kg CO2eq·menu-1). The assessment has identified non-dairy sources of protein and dairy-based products as the key food categories in all menus. Menus with more meat (mostly beef) and dairy products (mainly cheese) were associated with higher impacts. That is, the average impact of menus with beef is about 2 times greater than the one of all other menus. The distribution and cooking stages presented negligible contributions in terms of greenhouse gases emissions, mainly due to the consumption of local/regional products and low-energy intensive cooking techniques. The most important strategy for reducing environmental impacts is based on reducing the frequency of consumption of beef, so that poultry and lean pork are consumed alternately. This reduction should not compromise the necessary protein intake for toddlers. Attention should also be paid to afternoon snacks that are rich in cold meat and dairy products. Considering these issues, significant reductions in WF and CF indicators could be achieved, up to 550 L·menu-1 and 0.70 kg CO2eq·menu-1. Since eating habits introduced at an early stage are more likely to develop into adult behaviour, children canteen services are an excellent opportunity to promote healthy eating habits in children and their families.

Could the economic crisis explain the reduction in the carbon footprint of food? Evidence from Spain in the last decade.

Dietary patterns are influenced by numerous external factors such as cultural taste and customs, nutritional and economic aspects and lifestyle and consumer preferences. Otherwise, food also causes a great impact on the environment and there can be a large difference between choosing certain foodstuffs, such as plant or animal-based ones. The key for an environmentally friendly and healthy diet is the high consumption of plant-based products, low amounts of animal-origin foodstuffs and limited quantity of refined grains, processed food and added sugars. Nevertheless, adherence to it has been decreasing over the years due to the adoption of a more westernized consumption pattern. Thus, the main goal of this study is to monitor the food consumption pattern at household level during a period of 10 years (2008-2017), selecting Spain as case study. Both the impacts that foodstuffs included in the food basket cause in the environment, and the socio-economic variables that influence the consumer choice are considered. Results show a generalized decrease of the carbon footprint over the years. However, it does not always mean an approach to a healthier diet, considering that in this case it decreases both the consumption of those foods with a greater environmental footprint as those essential for a balanced diet with low ecological impact. Additionally, there is also an increase in the consumption of processed food, which further distances the dietary pattern from the recommendations, what can be more pronounced for the most vulnerable population groups, with less purchasing power to access healthy food.

Linking environmental sustainability and nutritional quality of the Atlantic diet recommendations and real consumption habits in Galicia (NW Spain).

Today's society is increasingly aware of food consumption patterns. Under the perspective that real consumption trends are often not in line with healthy recommendations, this research focuses on the study of the environmental and nutritional sustainability of two types of food consumption habits present in the northern Atlantic area of Spain (Galicia). The main objective is, therefore to detect the existing deviations between the current Galician diet (GD) and the traditional and increasingly relevant Recommended Atlantic Diet (RAD), allowing verifying whether current consumption patterns ensure an optimal and sustainable nutritional profile. In this sense, the carbon footprint from a Life Cycle Assessment perspective has been estimated as environmental indicator of both dietary patterns and, the nutritional quality has been determined by the Nutrient Rich Diet 9.3 index and the Health gain score. The carbon footprint of both dietary models is moderately high compared to recommended diets such as the Mediterranean one. Comparing the two scenarios, the associated greenhouse gas emissions are about 15% higher for GD than for RAD, mainly due to the higher intake of beef and dairy products. On the other hand, nutritional quality is comparatively higher for RAD than for GD, associated with higher consumption of vegetables and fruits. An additional objective of this work has been to consider a sensitivity analysis to determine the effect of replacing beef with alternative sources. Having in mind this study, it can be concluded that the real consumption pattern in Galicia is far from the recommended one, with worse environmental and nutritional quality. The promotion of social awareness policies to guide consumers in the choice a healthier and more environmentally sustainable dietary pattern should be advisable for regional decision-makers as well as for those who wish to promote adherence to the Atlantic diet in other regions and countries.

Towards an environmentally sustainable and healthy Atlantic dietary pattern: Life cycle carbon footprint and nutritional quality.

Production and consumption of food has a significant effect on climate change. The effect of different consumption habits on the environment should not be under estimated, as there are different studies that mention the environmental impact associated with different foods, especially those of animal origin. The analysis of the Atlantic diet (AD), as the most common dietary pattern in Northwestern Spain, serves as an example of a diet with a high consumption of local, fresh and seasonal products, home cooking and low-processed foods. The evaluation was carried out by quantifying the carbon footprint following the Life Cycle Analysis methodology and identifying its nutritional quality according to the value of the Nutrient-rich Dietary index (NRD9.3.). According to the main results, the consumption of livestock products and shellfish is responsible for most GHG emissions (70% of the total). The basic ingredients of the AD, such as vegetables and legumes, make a relatively minor contribution (with an impact of 30% of the total) to the total carbon footprint of 3.01 kg CO2eq·person-1·day-1. As regards nutritional quality, AD has a high nutritional score (474), mainly due to the low intake of sodium, added sugars and saturated fats (nutrients to be limited in healthy diets). In general, both the carbon footprint and the nutritional index score are consistent with those of other studies on the Mediterranean diet, which has been recognised as beneficial. Therefore, it can be concluded that the AD may be recommended from a nutritional and environmental point of view, mainly due to the high intake of fish and vegetables. The communication of this valuable environmental and nutritional information to consumers should be taken into account when considering strategic actions for the adoption of healthy and sustainable dietary patterns.

Carbon footprint and nutritional quality of different human dietary choices.

Apart from industrial activities, our eating habits also have a significant environmental cost associated with crop cultivation, manufacturing processes, packaging, refrigeration, transport cooking and waste management. In a context of growing social awareness of the role of different dietary choices in the environment, the review of different alternatives on the road to a healthy and sustainable diet should integrate relevant information on the nutritional quality of different eating habits. Since dietary choices have an effect on environmental sustainability and human health, a literature review on different dietary choices has been conducted to determine the differences in carbon footprint and nutritional quality identifying the main hotspots trying to give advice towards the identification of sustainable diets. After applying a set of criteria for reference selection, 21 peer-reviewed studies have been analysed in detail, allowing the comparison of 66 dietary scenarios. We identified that the so-called Mediterranean and Atlantic diets present high nutritional scores and low carbon footprints. On the contrary, the dietary choices identified in northern and Western Europe, as well as in the United States, have the highest carbon footprints, highlighting the contribution of dairy products as a basic source of high-quality nutrients and protein. Broadly speaking, dietary choices rich in vegetables (e.g., vegan, vegetarian as well as Indian and Peruvian) have a better environmental profile than those rich in meat (mainly ruminant meat). In line with these findings, the shift in meat consumption habits from beef and veal to chicken, pork and poultry, the introduction of alternative foods to animal protein (e.g. quinoa) and the consumption of olive oil as a major source of vegetable oil may be compatible with a healthier and more environmentally friendly diet. However, the complete elimination of meat and dairy products from the daily diet may not be feasible in case the supply of some micronutrients (e.g., calcium and vitamin D) is not guaranteed. Limitations were identified in the consulted studies related to the consideration of the different system boundaries, as well as underlying uncertainties related to data sources. Therefore, efforts should be made to develop consistent and agreed-upon methods for estimating both the carbon footprint and nutritional quality scores.