Developing an artificial intelligence-based headache diagnostic model and its utility for non-specialists' diagnostic accuracy.

BACKGROUND: Misdiagnoses of headache disorders are a serious issue. Therefore, we developed an artificial intelligence-based headache diagnosis model using a large questionnaire database in a specialized headache hospital. METHODS: Phase 1: We developed an artificial intelligence model based on a retrospective investigation of 4000 patients (2800 training and 1200 test dataset) diagnosed by headache specialists. Phase 2: The model's efficacy and accuracy were validated. Five non-headache specialists first diagnosed headaches in 50 patients, who were then re-diagnosed using AI. The ground truth was the diagnosis by headache specialists. The diagnostic performance and concordance rates between headache specialists and non-specialists with or without artificial intelligence were evaluated. RESULTS: Phase 1: The model's macro-average accuracy, sensitivity (recall), specificity, precision, and F values were 76.25%, 56.26%, 92.16%, 61.24%, and 56.88%, respectively, for the test dataset. Phase 2: Five non-specialists diagnosed headaches without artificial intelligence with 46% overall accuracy and 0.212 kappa for the ground truth. The statistically improved values with artificial intelligence were 83.20% and 0.678, respectively. Other diagnostic indexes were also improved. CONCLUSIONS: Artificial intelligence improved the non-specialist diagnostic performance. Given the model's limitations based on the data from a single center and the low diagnostic accuracy for secondary headaches, further data collection and validation are needed.

Inhibition of Akt/GSK3beta signalling pathway by Legionella pneumophila is involved in induction of T-cell apoptosis.

Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent of human Legionnaires' disease. L. pneumophila has been shown to induce apoptosis of T-cells and this may be important pathologically and clinically. The present study has determined the molecular mechanisms underlying L. pneumophila-induced apoptosis, which were unclear. Wild-type L. pneumophila and flagellin-deficient Legionella, but not L. pneumophila lacking a functional type IV secretion system Dot/Icm, replicated in T-cells. However, apoptosis was efficiently induced in T-cells only by wild-type L. pneumophila, and not flagellin-deficient or Dot/Icm-deficient Legionella. Induction of apoptosis involved activation of the initiator caspase 9 and effector caspase 3. Infection with L. pneumophila inhibited phosphorylation of Akt (also known as protein kinase B) and the Akt substrate GSK3beta (glycogen synthase kinase 3beta), and reduced the levels of beta-catenin, a transcriptional activator regulated by GSK3beta. It also caused the activation of the pro-apoptotic protein Bax and inhibited the expression of the anti-apoptotic protein XIAP (X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis) via inhibition of the Akt pathway. In conclusion, L. pneumophila induces mitochondria-mediated T-cell apoptosis through inhibition of the Akt/GSK3beta signalling pathway.

Molecular characterization of Legionella pneumophila-induced interleukin-8 expression in T cells.

BACKGROUND: Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent of human Legionnaire's disease. During infection, the bacterium invades macrophages and lung epithelial cells, and replicates intracellularly. However, little is known about its interaction with T cells. We investigated the ability of L. pneumophila to infect and stimulate the production of interleukin-8 (IL-8) in T cells. The objective of this study was to assess whether L. pneumophila interferes with the immune system by interacting and infecting T cells. RESULTS: Wild-type L. pneumophila and flagellin-deficient Legionella, but not L. pneumophila lacking a functional type IV secretion system Dot/Icm, replicated in T cells. On the other hand, wild-type L. pneumophila and Dot/Icm-deficient Legionella, but not flagellin-deficient Legionella or heat-killed Legionella induced IL-8 expression. L. pneumophila activated an IL-8 promoter through the NF-kappaB and AP-1 binding regions. Wild-type L. pneumophila but not flagellin-deficient Legionella activated NF-kappaB, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and transforming growth factor beta-associated kinase 1 (TAK1). Transfection of dominant negative mutants of IkappaBalpha, IkappaB kinase, NF-kappaB-inducing kinase, TAK1, MyD88, and p38 MAPK inhibited L. pneumophila-induced IL-8 activation. Inhibitors of NF-kappaB, p38 MAPK, and JNK blocked L. pneumophila-induced IL-8 expression. In addition, c-Jun, JunD, cyclic AMP response element binding protein, and activating transcription factor 1, which are substrates of p38 MAPK and JNK, bound to the AP-1 site of the IL-8 promoter. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, L. pneumophila induced a flagellin-dependent activation of TAK1, p38 MAPK, and JNK, as well as NF-kappaB and AP-1, which resulted in IL-8 production in human T cells, presumably contributing to the immune response in Legionnaire's disease.

Helicobacter pylori VacA activates NF-kappaB in T cells via the classical but not alternative pathway.

BACKGROUND: Helicobacter pylori secretes vacuolating cytotoxin (VacA) that damages the gastric epithelium by erosion and loosening of tight junctions. VacA has also immunosuppressive effects, inhibiting interleukin (IL)-2 secretion by interference with the T cell receptor/IL-2 signaling pathway. This study investigated the effect of VacA on gene expression of T cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Gene expression profile of a T cell line, Jurkat, was analyzed by the cDNA microarray technique after VacA challenge. The expression of specific mRNAs was assessed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Interleukin (IL)-8 concentrations in culture supernatants and cell surface expression of CD69 were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and flow cytometry, respectively. We evaluated nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) activation in Jurkat cells challenged with VacA by luciferase assay, electrophoretic mobility shift assay, and Western blot analysis. RESULTS: VacA produced two or greater fold up-regulation of expression of 60 genes. Most of these genes were associated with signal transduction, regulation of gene expression, apoptosis, and inflammation. Up-regulation of four genes (IL8, IL2RA, ICAM1, and CD69) was confirmed. The supernatants of cells incubated with VacA showed significantly higher secretion levels of IL-8 than those incubated without VacA. VacA also induced the cell surface expression of CD69. Since microarray analysis indicated NF-kappaB was involved in the transcriptional activation of the above genes, we examined NF-kappaB signaling pathway. VacA activated NF-kappaB via classical but not alternative pathway. CONCLUSIONS: VacA has two paradoxical effects on T cells, immunosuppression, and proinflammatory effects. The latter is mediated by NF-kappaB activation.

NF-kappaB activation by Helicobacter pylori requires Akt-mediated phosphorylation of p65.

BACKGROUND: The inflammatory response in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric tissue is mediated by cag pathogenicity island (PAI)-dependent activation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB). Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling is known to play a role in NF-kappaB activation, but little information is available on the relationship between H. pylori and PI3K/Akt signaling in gastric epithelial cells. We examined whether H. pylori activates Akt in gastric epithelial cells, the role of cag PAI in this process and the role of Akt in regulating H. pylori-induced NF-kappaB activation. RESULTS: Phosphorylated Akt was detected in epithelial cells of H. pylori-positive gastric tissues. Although Akt was activated in MKN45 and AGS cells by coculture with cag PAI-positive H. pylori strains, a cag PAI-negative mutant showed no activation of Akt. H. pylori also induced p65 phosphorylation. PI3K inhibitor suppressed H. pylori-induced p65 phosphorylation and NF-kappaB transactivation, as well as interleukin-8 expression. Furthermore, transfection with a dominant-negative Akt inhibited H. pylori-induced NF-kappaB transactivation. Transfection with small interference RNAs for p65 and Akt also inhibited H. pylori-induced interleukin-8 expression. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that cag PAI-positive H. pylori activates Akt in gastric epithelial cells and this may contribute to H. pylori-mediated NF-kappaB activation associated with mucosal inflammation and carcinogenesis.

Helicobacter pylori-induced interleukin-12 p40 expression.

Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a heterodimeric cytokine produced by antigen-presenting cells that promotes the development of T-helper lymphocyte 1 (Th1). Chronic gastritis induced by Helicobacter pylori is considered a Th1-mediated process. IL-12 levels in gastric biopsy samples of H. pylori-infected patients are higher than in those of uninfected individuals, but the cellular source of IL-12 remains elusive. IL-12 staining was detected in mucosal epithelial cells, lymphocytes, and macrophages in specimens of patients with H. pylori-positive gastritis. Therefore, we investigated IL-12 p40 mRNA induction by H. pylori in gastric epithelial cells and T cells. Although cag pathogenicity island (PAI)-positive H. pylori induced IL-12 p40 mRNA expression, an isogenic mutant of the cag PAI failed to induce it in both cell types. Supernatants from H. pylori cultures and H. pylori VacA induced IL-12 p40 mRNA expression in T cells but not in epithelial cells. The activation of the IL-12 p40 promoter by H. pylori was mediated through NF-kappaB. The transfection of IkappaB kinase and NF-kappaB-inducing kinase dominant-negative mutants inhibited H. pylori-induced IL-12 p40 activation. Inhibitors of NF-kappaB, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, and Hsp90 suppressed H. pylori- and VacA-induced IL-12 p40 mRNA expression. The results indicate that H. pylori induces IL-12 p40 expression by the activation of NF-kappaB, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. Hsp90 is also a crucial regulator of H. pylori-induced IL-12 p40 expression. In addition to the cag PAI, VacA might be relevant in the induction of IL-12 expression and a Th1-polarized response only in T cells.