[Comparison of Bayesian Estimation and SVD Methods for CT Perfusion in Patients with Acute Stroke].

PURPOSE: There are various analysis methods for CT perfusion (CTP). Although the advantages of Bayesian estimation algorithms have been newly suggested, comparisons with other analysis methods on clinical data are still limited. In this study, we compared the Bayesian estimation method with the singular value decomposition (SVD) method in the evaluation of patients with acute cerebral infarction and examined its usefulness. METHODS: CTP data from 13 patients with acute stroke were analyzed using the SVD and Bayesian estimation methods implemented in Vitrea. Evaluation of visual clarity of the ischemic area and quantitative values of the healthy side-affected side ratio using the mean values of the left and right region of interest (ROI) on the images were compared using the SVD and Bayesian estimation methods. RESULTS: In visual evaluation, there were significant differences in CBV in four cases, and in CBF, MTT, and TTP in many cases. The healthy side-affected side ratio of the SVD and Bayesian estimation methods were as follows: CBF 1.19, 1.84; CBV 1.09, 1.02; MTT 1.12, 1.79; and TTP 1.48, 1.19. For CBF and MTT, the Bayesian estimation method had a larger ratio of the healthy side to the affected side, and for TTP, the SVD method had a larger ratio of the test side to the affected side. CONCLUSION: We suggest that the Bayesian estimation method is more useful than the SVD method for assessing CBF and MTT in CTP analysis of patients with acute stroke.

[Multicenter Follow-up Survey on Radiation Dose Levels in Cardiovascular X-ray Apparatus under Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Conditions].

It is important to optimize the exposure dose when conducting interventional radiology, but optimization is difficult for medical centers to achieve independently. In 2005, we administered a questionnaire on the measurement of dose rates and awareness of exposure reduction when performing percutaneous coronary intervention. Ten years later, we conducted a follow-up survey of the same 31 centers to determine the current situation and identify trends. The results of the survey showed that the mean fluoroscopy dose rate decreased to 55% of the 2005 value, from 28.2 to 15.6 mGy/min, and the mean radiography dose rate decreased to 71% of the 2005 value, from 4.2 to 3.0 mGy/s. Dose rates for both fluoroscopy and radiography decreased by 84% of facilities. The results also indicated greater cooperation by physicians compared to 10 years ago. In particular, there was a considerable increase in the exchange of ideas with physicians regarding exposure, suggesting a stronger level of interest in exposure. The overall score for questionnaire items was 33% higher than that in the previous survey. These results show that in the past 10 years, awareness of exposure reduction has improved, and dose optimization has been a major factor in the downward trend in dose rates in radiography and fluoroscopy.

[Multicenter Survey of the Display Air Kerma and Actual Measured Values in IVR X-ray Apparatus].

PURPOSE: We conducted a multicenter study to investigate the current status of difference between the actual values at the patient entrance reference point (PERP) and display air kerma. METHODS: We exposure dose and fluoroscopy dose were measured by 32 apparatuses at 32 member institutions of the Japanese Society of Circulation Imaging Technology (CITEC) under unified conditions, and the actual measured values and display air kerma were compared. We entrance doses during fluoroscopy and imaging were measured at the PERP, with focus detector distance (FDD) 110 cm, a copper plate of 3.5 mm in thickness adhered to the front face of flat panel detector (FPD) as absorber, field-of-view (FOV) 18 cm, and the frame rate of 15 f/s, excluding the bed. Display air kerma were recorded at the same time. JIS (Z 4751-2-43: 2012) specify "The reference air kerma rate and the cumulative reference air kerma shall not deviate from their respective display air kerma by more than ±35% over the range of 6 mGy/min and 100 mGy to the maximum value." The number of apparatuses display air kerma deviated from this condition and its percentage were obtained. RESULTS: The mean difference percentage between actual measured values and display air kerma in 32 apparatuses was approximately 15.6%, with some apparatuses showing substantially different display air kerma. CONCLUSION: In order to estimate patients' skin exposure dose from display air kerma more accurately, it is necessary to perform calibration of the apparatus by regular dose measurement or convert values.

Bisphenol A significantly modulates long-term depression in the hippocampus as observed by multi-electrode system.

OBJECTIVE: Low dose exposure to endocrine disrupters (environmental chemicals) may induce hormone-like effects on wildlife and humans. bisphenol A (BPA) might disturb the neuronal signaling regulated by endogenous estrogens. We investigated the rapid modulation effects of 10nM BPA, a typical endocrine disruptor, on long-term depression (LTD) of adult rat hippocampal slices. METHOD: LTD was induced by a transient perfusion of 30 µM NMDA for 3 min. And measured with multielectrode probes. RESULTS: A 30 min perfusion of 10 nM BPA rapidly enhanced LTD in CA1, however, BPA suppressed LTD in dentate gyrus (DG). An ERRγ antagonist, 4-OH-tamoxifen, suppressed LTD in CA1 and DG. Inhibitor of estrogen receptor ICI 182,780 did not disturb BPA effects. On the other hand, tributyltin (TBT), another endocrine disruptor, did not have any effect on LTD in CA1 and DG. CONCLUSION: ERRγ, but not estrogen receptors, is a high affinity BPA receptor in LTD processes, since the effect of BPA on LTD was suppressed by an ERRγ antagonist. A possible mechanisms of BPA-induced enhancement of LTD could be described with ERRγ, MAPK activation and phosphorylation of MMDA receptors.

[Examination of patient dose reduction in cardiovasucular X-ray systems with a metal filter].

In interventional X-ray for cardiology of flat panel digital detector (FPD), the phenomenon that exposure dose was suddenly increased when a subject thickness was thickened was recognized. At that time, variable metal built-in filters in FPD were all off. Therefore, we examined whether dose reduction was possible without affecting a clinical image using metal filter (filter) which we have been conventionally using for dose reduction. About 45% dose reduction was achieved when we measured an exposure dose at 30 cm of acrylic thickness in the presence of a filter. In addition, we measured signal to noise ratio/contrast to noise ratio/a resolution limit by the visual evaluation, and there was no influence by filter usage. In the clinical examination, visual evaluation of image quality of coronary angiography (40 cases) using a 5-point evaluation scale by a physician was performed. As a result, filter usage did not influence the image quality (p=NS). Therefore, reduction of sudden increase of exposure dose was achieved without influencing an image quality by adding filter to FPD.

Nanomolar dose of bisphenol A rapidly modulates spinogenesis in adult hippocampal neurons.

We demonstrated the rapid effects of 10nM bisphenol A (BPA) on the spinogenesis of adult rat hippocampal slices. The density of spines was analyzed by imaging Lucifer Yellow-injected CA1 neurons in slices. Not only the total spine density but also the head diameter distribution of spine was quantitatively analyzed. Spinogenesis was significantly enhanced by BPA within 2h. In particular, the density of middle-head spine (with head diameter of 0.4-0.5µm) was significantly increased. Hydroxytamoxifen, an antagonist of both estrogen-related receptor gamma (ERRγ) and estrogen receptors (ERα/ERß), blocked the BPA-induced enhancement of the spine density. However, ICI 182,780, an antagonist of ERα/ERß, did not suppress the BPA effects. Therefore, ERRγ is deduced to be a high affinity receptor of BPA, responsible for modulation of spinogenesis. The BPA-induced enhancement of spinogenesis was also suppressed by MAP kinase inhibitor, PD98059, and the blocker of NMDA receptors, MK-801. Washout of BPA for additional 2h after 2h BPA treatment abolished the BPA-induced enhancement of spinogenesis, suggesting that the BPA effect was reversible. ERRγ was localized at synapses as well as cell bodies of principal neurons. ERRγ at synapses may contribute to the observed rapid effect. The level of BPA in the hippocampal slices was determined by mass-spectrometric analysis.

Rapid modulation of synaptic plasticity by estrogens as well as endocrine disrupters in hippocampal neurons.

Estrogen modulates memory-related synaptic plasticity not only slowly but also rapidly in the hippocampus. However, molecular mechanisms of the rapid action are yet largely unknown. We here describe rapid modulation of representative synaptic plasticity, i.e., long-term depression (LTD), long-term potentiation (LTP) and spinogenesis, by 17beta-estradiol, selective estrogen agonists as well as endocrine disrupters. The authors demonstrated that 1-10 nM estradiol induced rapid enhancement of LTD within 1 h in not only CA1 but also CA3 and dentate gyrus (DG). On the other hand, the modulation of LTP by estradiol was not statistically significant. The total density of spines was increased in CA1 pyramidal neurons, within 2 h after application of estradiol. The total density of thorns (postsynaptic spine-like structure) was, however, decreased by estradiol in CA3 pyramidal neurons. Both the increase of spines in CA1 and the decrease of thorns in CA3 were completely suppressed by Erk MAP kinase inhibitor. Only ERalpha agonist PPT induced the same enhancement/suppression effect as estradiol on both LTD and spinogenesis in CA1 and CA3. ERbeta agonist DPN induced completely different results. ERalpha localized in spines and presynapses of principal glutamatergic neurons in CA1, CA3 and DG. The same ERalpha was also located in nuclei and cytoplasm. Identification of ERalpha was successfully performed using purified RC-19 antibody. Non-purified ERalpha antisera, however, reacted significantly with unknown proteins, resulting in wrong immunostaining different from real ERalpha distribution. An issue of 'endocrine disrupters' (1-100 nM low dose of environmental chemicals), which are artificial xenoestrogenic or anti-xenoestrogenic substances, has emerged as a social and environmental problem. Endocrine disrupters were found to significantly modulate LTD and spinogenesis. Bisphenol A (BPA) and diethylstilbestrol (DES) enhanced LTD in CA1 and CA3. The total spine density was significantly increased by BPA and DES in CA1. Most probable receptors for BPA and DES may be Ralpha; however, other receptors might also be involved.

Rapid modulation of long-term depression and spinogenesis via synaptic estrogen receptors in hippocampal principal neurons.

Rapid modulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity by estrogen has long been a hot topic, but analysis of molecular mechanisms via synaptic estrogen receptors has been seriously difficult. Here, two types of independent synaptic plasticity, long-term depression (LTD) and spinogenesis, were investigated, in response to 17beta-estradiol and agonists of estrogen receptors using hippocampal slices from adult male rats. Multi-electrode investigations demonstrated that estradiol rapidly enhanced LTD not only in CA1 but also in CA3 and dentate gyrus. Dendritic spine morphology analysis demonstrated that the density of thin type spines was selectively increased in CA1 pyramidal neurons within 2 h after application of 1 nm estradiol. This enhancement of spinogenesis was completely suppressed by mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase inhibitor. Only the estrogen receptor (ER) alpha agonist, (propyl-pyrazole-trinyl)tris-phenol (PPT), induced the same enhancing effect as estradiol on both LTD and spinogenesis in the CA1. The ERbeta agonist, (4-hydroxyphenyl)-propionitrile (DPN), suppressed LTD and did not affect spinogenesis. Because the mode of synaptic modulations by estradiol was mostly the same as that by the ERalpha agonist, a search was made for synaptic ERalpha using purified RC-19 antibody qualified using ERalpha knockout (KO) mice. Localization of ERalpha in spines of principal glutamatergic neurons was demonstrated using immunogold electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. ERalpha was also located in nuclei, cytoplasm and presynapses.

Comparison between basal and apical dendritic spines in estrogen-induced rapid spinogenesis of CA1 principal neurons in the adult hippocampus.

Modulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity by estrogen has been attracting much attention. Here, we demonstrated the rapid effect of 17beta-estradiol on the density and morphology of spines in the stratum oriens (s.o., basal side) and in the stratum lacunosum-moleculare (s.l.m., apical side) by imaging Lucifer Yellow-injected CA1 neurons in adult male rat hippocampal slices, because spines in s.o. and s.l.m. have been poorly understood as compared with spines in the stratum radiatum. The application of 1nM estradiol-induced a rapid increase in the density of spines of pyramidal neurons within 2h. This increase by estradiol was blocked by Erk MAP kinase inhibitor and estrogen receptor inhibitor in both regions. Effect of blockade by agonists of AMPA receptors and NMDA receptors was different between s.o. and s.l.m. In both regions, ERalpha agonist PPT induced the same enhancing effect of spinogenesis as that induced by estradiol.

Role of cytochrome p450 in synaptocrinology: endogenous estrogen synthesis in the brain hippocampus.

In the hippocampus, the center for learning and memory, cytochrome P450s (P450scc, P450(17alpha), and P450arom) as well as 17beta-, 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases, and 5alpha-reductase participate in the synthesis of brain steroids from endogenous cholesterol. These brain steroids include pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and 17beta-estradiol. Both estrogens and androgens are synthesized in the adult male hippocampal neurons. Although the expression levels of steroidogenic enzymes are as low as 1/200 to 1/50,000 of those in testis or ovary, the levels of synthesized steroids are sufficient for the local usage within small neurons (i.e., intracrine system). This intracrine system contrasts with the endocrine system in which high expression levels of steroidogenic enzymes are necessary in endocrine organs in order to supply steroids to many other organs via blood circulation. Endogenous synthesis of sex steroids in the hypothalamus is also discussed. Rapid modulation by estrogens and xenoestrogens is discussed concerning synaptic plasticity such as the long-term potentiation, the long-term depression, or spinogenesis. Synaptic expression of P450(17alpha), P450arom, and estrogen receptors suggests "synaptocrine" mechanisms of brain steroids, which are synthesized at synapses and act as synaptic modulators.

Real-time quantitative analysis for human telomerase reverse transcriptase mRNA and human telomerase RNA component mRNA expressions as markers for clinicopathologic parameters in urinary bladder cancer.

AIM: The expression of the telomerase subunits such as human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) and human telomerase RNA component (hTR) may be associated with tumor development and progression. We evaluated the relationship between mRNA quantification of both hTERT and hTR and clinicopathologic parameters in bladder cancer. METHODS: We examined the mRNA expression of hTERT and hTR in 29 specimens with bladder cancer (Grade: Grade I, 9 cases; Grade II, 13 cases and Grade III, 7 cases. Stage: pTa-pT1, 18 cases; pT2-T4, 11 cases). We immediately froze all of specimens obtained during TUR-Bt and isolated the total RNA from each specimen. We measured the quantity of hTERT, hTR and GAPDH mRNA by a real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction method based on TaqMan technology. RESULTS: The hTERT/GAPDH mRNA ratio and hTERT mRNA/total RNA in superficial bladder tumor was significantly lower than in invasive bladder tumor. The hTR/GAPDH mRNA ratio and hTR mRNA/total RNA in superficial tumor were significantly lower than in invasive bladder tumor. The hTERT mRNA expression significantly correlated with tumor grade, but the hTR mRNA expression did not correlate with tumor grade. There was no significant difference in the hTERT/GAPDH mRNA ratio and hTR mRNA/total RNA according to multiplicity of bladder tumor. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrated that the expression of hTERT mRNA correlated with the progression of stage and grade in bladder cancer. The quantitative analysis of hTERT and hTR mRNA might be a marker for clinicopathologic parameters in bladder cancer.

Rapid Ca(2+) signaling induced by Bisphenol A in cultured rat hippocampal neurons.

OBJECTIVES: Bisphenol A (BPA) is a typical endocrine disrupter. We investigated the mechanisms of rapid Ca(2+) signaling induced by a low dose BPA application in cultured hippocampal neurons. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The primary culture of hippocampal neurons were prepared from postnatal 3 to 5-day-old rats. Cells were loaded with Calcium Green-1 fluorophore. Ca(2+) imaging and analysis were performed by Argus system. RESULTS: The application of BPA at 10-100 nM induced a transient increase in the intracellular Ca(2+) of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-responsive neurons. The Ca(2+) transient occurred within 30 sec after the BPA application. The proportion of BPA-responsive neurons was 9.6 % and 8.5 % of the total NMDA-responsive neurons, respectively, upon 10 nM and 100 nM BPA application. The pre-treatment of neurons with Ca(2+) channel blockers, thapsigargin and nifedipine, considerably decreased the proportion of BPA-responsive neurons to 0.7 % and 3.7%, respectively. The treatment of neurons with an antagonist of estrogen receptor, ICI 182,780, also significantly decreased the proportion of BPA-responsive neurons down to 1.1 %. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that a low dose BPA application rapidly drives the Ca(2+) signaling system via activation of non-genomic pathway including estrogen receptors.

Estrogen induces rapid decrease in dendritic thorns of CA3 pyramidal neurons in adult male rat hippocampus.

Modulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity by estrogen has been attracting much attention. Thorns of thorny excrescences of CA3 hippocampal neurons are post-synaptic regions whose presynaptic partners are mossy fiber terminals. Here we demonstrated the rapid effect of estradiol on the density of thorns of thorny excrescences, by imaging Lucifer Yellow-injected CA3 neurons in adult male rat hippocampal slices. The application of 1nM estradiol induced rapid decrease in the density of thorns on pyramidal neurons within 2h. The estradiol-mediated decrease in the density of thorns was blocked by CNQX (AMPA receptor antagonist) and PD98059 (MAP kinase inhibitor), but not by MK-801 (NMDA receptor antagonist). ERalpha agonist PPT induced the same suppressive effect as that induced by estradiol on the density of thorns, but ERbeta agonist DPN did not affect the density of thorns. Note that a 1nM estradiol treatment did not affect the density of spines in the stratum radiatum and stratum oriens. A search for synaptic ERalpha was performed using purified RC-19 antibody. The localization of ERalpha (67kDa) in the CA3 mossy fiber terminals and thorns was demonstrated using immunogold electron microscopy. These results imply that estradiol drives the signaling pathway including ERalpha and MAP kinase.

Rapid spinogenesis of pyramidal neurons induced by activation of glucocorticoid receptors in adult male rat hippocampus.

Modulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity by glucocorticoids has been attracting much attention, due to its importance in stress responses. Dendritic spines are essential for memory storage processes. Here, we investigated the effect of dexamethasone (DEX), a specific agonist of glucocorticoid receptor (GR), on density and morphology of dendritic spines in adult male rat hippocampus by imaging of Lucifer Yellow-injected spines in slices. The application of 100 nM DEX (stressful high concentration) induced rapid modulation of the density and morphology of dendritic spines in CA1 pyramidal neurons within 1h. The total spine density increased from 0.88 spines/microm (control) to 1.36 spines/microm (DEX-treated). DEX significantly increased the density of thin and mushroom type spines, however only a slight increase was observed for stubby and filopodium type spines. Because the presence of 10 microM cycloheximide, an inhibitor of protein synthesis, did not suppress the DEX effect, these responses are probably non-genomic. Western immunoblot analysis demonstrated the localization of classical type GR in Triton-insoluble synaptosomal fractions (enriched in postsynaptic membranes) from hippocampal slices, suggesting a possible action site of DEX at spines.

Modified endoscopic live donor nephrectomy: retroperitoneoscopy followed by hand-assistance.

We have developed a novel modification of previous approaches to donor nephrectomy and herein review our original operative procedure. First, the posterior aspect of the kidney was dissected retroperitoneoscopically and dissection of the renal artery, ureter and gonadal vein was almost completed. Second, the anterior aspect of the kidney was dissected with transperitoneal hand-assistance, and dissection of the renal pedicle from the anterior surface was accomplished easily and safely. This operative procedure was successfully performed for two donors with no intraoperative or postoperative complications. Our modified endoscopic donor nephrectomy is feasible as a minimally invasive procedure because of its safety, and its ability to preserve renal function and establish an excellent operative field for both posterior and anterior aspects of the kidney.

[Pharmacokinetics of paclitaxel and carboplatin in a hemodialysis patient with metastatic urothelial carcinoma--a case report].

A 69-year-old-man undergoing hemodialysis for 8 years developed metastatic urothelial carcinoma and received combination chemotherapy with paclitaxel and carboplatin. Paclitaxel 175 mg/m2 was given as a 3-hour intravenous infusion, and carboplatin was dosed to the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) of 5 mg.min/ml calculated according to the Calvert formula as a 30-minute intravenous infusion immediately after paclitaxel. Hemodialysis was started 1 hour after carboplatin, then their pharmacokinetics was determined in the patient. The AUC of paclitaxel and carboplatin were 15.2 and 64.56 micrograms.h/ml, respectively. The metastatic tumor size was reduced by more than 20% after 3 courses of this chemotherapy. Grade 3 neutropenia and grade 1 thrombopenia were observed. This is the first report that the combination of paclitaxel and carboplatin is feasible in a patient with metastatic urothelial carcinoma undergoing hemodialysis, with low toxicity and safety.

Retroperitoneoscopic nephron-sparing surgery of renal tumor using a microwave tissue coagulator without renal ischemia: comparison with open procedure.

PURPOSE: It is ideal to use not a transperitoneal but a retroperitoneal approach for both open and endoscopic partial nephrectomy. We compared the results of retroperitoneoscopic nephron-sparing surgery for small renal tumors using a microwave tissue coagulator without renal pedicle clamping with those of a retroperitoneal open procedure. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Between 1996 and 2002, eight patients with small renal tumors underwent retroperitoneoscopic partial nephrectomy without renal ischemia, and nine patients with small renal tumors underwent open partial nephrectomy via a retroperitoneal approach. Both groups were operated on using a microwave tissue coagulator. RESULTS: Retroperitoneoscopic partial nephrectomy without renal ischemia was performed without any major or minor complications in any patient. The mean operation time for retroperitoneoscopic surgery was significantly longer than that for open partial nephrectomy (221.9 minutes v 145.9 minutes; P = 0.0004). However, the mean estimated blood loss for retroperitoneoscopic surgery was less than that for open partial nephrectomy (137.5 mL v 334.8 mL; P = 0.012). In addition, the retroperitoneoscopic group seemed to recover more rapidly than the open surgery group. CONCLUSIONS: Retroperitoneoscopic nephron-sparing surgery of small renal tumors using a microwave tissue coagulator without renal ischemia is feasible as minimally invasive procedure. It results in saving renal function, minimal blood loss, and rapid recovery.

Hippocampal cytochrome P450s synthesize brain neurosteroids which are paracrine neuromodulators of synaptic signal transduction.

Hippocampal pyramidal neurons and granule neurons of adult male rats are equipped with a complete machinery for the synthesis of pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone, 17beta-estradiol and testosterone as well as their sulfate esters. These brain neurosteroids are synthesized by cytochrome P450s (P450scc, P45017alpha and P450arom) from endogenous cholesterol. Synthesis is acutely dependent on the Ca(2+) influx attendant upon neuron-neuron communication via N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Pregnenolone sulfate, estradiol and corticosterone rapidly modulate neuronal signal transduction and the induction of long-term potentiation via NMDA receptors and putative membrane steroid receptors. Brain neurosteroids are therefore promising neuromodulators that may either activate or inactivate neuron-neuron communication, thereby mediating learning and memory in the hippocampus.

Corticosterone acutely prolonged N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-mediated Ca2+ elevation in cultured rat hippocampal neurons.

This work reports the first demonstration that corticosterone (CORT) has a rapid and transient effect on NMDA receptor-mediated Ca2+ signaling in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. Using single cell Ca2+ imaging, CORT and agonists of glucocorticoid receptors were observed to modulate the NMDA receptor-mediated Ca2+ signals in a completely different fashion from pregnenolone sulfate. In the absence of steroids, 100 micro m NMDA induced a transient Ca2+ signal that lasted for 30-70 s in 86.1% of the neurons prepared from postnatal rats (3-5 days old). After pre-treatment with 0.1-100 micro m CORT for 10-20 min, NMDA induced extremely prolonged Ca2+ elevation. This prolonged Ca2+ elevation was terminated by the application of MK-801 and followed by washing out of CORT. The proportion of CORT-modulated neurons within the NMDA-responsive cells increased from 25.1 to 95.5% when the concentration of CORT was raised from 0.1 to 50 micro m. Substitution of BSA-conjugated CORT produced essentially the same results. When hippocampal neurons were preincubated with 10 micro m cortisol and 1 micro m dexamethasone for 20 min, a very prolonged Ca2+ elevation was also observed upon NMDA stimulation. The CORT-prolonged Ca2+ elevation caused a long-lasting depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane, as observed with rhodamine 123. In contrast, incubation with 100 micro m pregnenolone sulfate did not considerably alter the time duration of NMDA-induced transient Ca2+ elevation, but caused a significant increase in the peak amplitude of Ca2+ elevation in hippocampal neurons. These results imply that high levels of CORT induce a rapid and non-genomic prolongation of NMDA receptor-mediated Ca2+ elevation, probably via putative membrane surface receptors for CORT in the hippocampal neurons.