Djeho, the Egyptian God's dancer with dwarfism from the thirtieth dynasty.

This manuscript presents some artistic and medical considerations about a representation of an individual with apparent dwarfism. He was found in Saqqara by the British Egyptologist James Edward Quibell, in 1910/11. The naked figure of this individual, Djeho, is carved in profile on the lid of his sarcophagus. He has a height of 120 cm and has characteristic clinical features suggesting achondroplasia.

[From the discovery of phlorizin (a Belgian story) to SGLT2 inhibitors]. / De la découverte de la phlorizine (une histoire belge) aux inhibiteurs des SGLT2.

Most physicians do not know, or do not remember, the name of phlorizin. Hence this molecule has a major historical importance because it was the precursor of gliflozins, a new class of oral antidiabetic drugs with recent therapeutic perspectives beyond diabetes. This article recalls the history of phlorizin: its discovery in the 19th century by De Koninck and Stas, the demonstration of its ability to induce glucosuria and reduce hyperglycaemia by von Mering, its use to demonstrate the concept of glucose toxicity by the team of DeFronzo and finally the development of selective (phlorizin being not selective) sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2 inhibitors (gliflozins) which block glucose reabsorption in renal tubules. Gliflozins have increasing therapeutic indications, not only in type 2 diabetes, but also in cardiology and nephrology among non-diabetic people with heart failure or renal insufficiency.

La plupart des médecins ne connaissent pas, ou ne se souviennent plus, de la phlorizine. Pourtant, cette molécule a une grande importance historique car elle a été le précurseur des gliflozines, une nouvelle classe d'antidiabétiques oraux ouvrant maintenant de nouvelles perspectives thérapeutiques au-delà du diabète. Cet article retrace l'histoire de la phlorizine : sa découverte au 19ème siècle par De Koninck et Stas, la démonstration de l'induction d'une glucosurie abaissant la glycémie par von Mering, son utilisation pour conceptualiser la notion de glucotoxicité par l'équipe de DeFronzo et, enfin, le développement d'inhibiteurs sélectifs (la phlorizine étant non sélective) des cotransporteurs sodium-glucose de type 2 (SGLT2, gliflozines),dans les tubules rénaux, bloquant la réabsorption du glucose. Les gliflozines ont, maintenant, des indications thérapeutiques de plus en plus larges, non seulement dans le diabète de type 2, mais aussi en cardiologie et en néphrologie chez des personnes non diabétiques avec insuffisance cardiaque ou insuffisance rénale.

[Retrospective study of the thyroid balance in pregnant women : definition of TSH and FT4 reference values]. / Étude rétrospective du bilan thyroïdien chez les femmes enceintes : définition des valeurs de référence de TSH et FT4.

Pregnancy leads to many physiological changes, particularly in the thyroid. This implies that the reference values of the thyroid parameters may change according to the trimesters of the pregnancy and that the management of pregnant women differs. Establishing reference values is not easy and can be done in several ways. In our study, we review the reference values of TSH and FT4 of pregnant women followed up at Liege University Hospital compared to control women. This has been achieved using retrospective data from our laboratory. We show that the small decrease in the TSH reference values in pregnant women is barely visible in a small cohort. Our FT4 values confirm what the literature shows, i.e. a slight increase during the first trimester. We emphasize the difficulty and the relevance of making reference values for pregnant women.

La grossesse aboutit à de nombreux changements physiologiques, en particulier vis-à-vis de la fonction thyroïdienne. Ceci implique que les valeurs de référence du bilan thyroïdien changent en fonction des trimestres et que la prise en charge des femmes enceintes diffère. Établir des valeurs de référence n'est pas un travail aisé et peut être fait de plusieurs façons. Dans notre étude réalisée au CHU de Liège, nous revoyons les valeurs de référence de TSH et FT4 de femmes enceintes par rapport à des femmes contrôles. Ceci a été réalisé à partir de données rétrospectives de notre laboratoire. Nous montrons que la faible diminution des valeurs de référence de la TSH chez la femme enceinte est peu visible sur une petite cohorte. Nos valeurs de FT4 confirment ce que montre la littérature, à savoir une légère augmentation durant le premier trimestre. Nous soulignons la difficulté et la pertinence de définir des valeurs de référence chez la femme enceinte.

[Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system : brief history and questions related to the COVID-19 pandemic]. / Système rénine-angiotensine-aldostérone : bref historique et questionnements face à la pandémie COVID-19.

The breakthrough of the secrets of hypertension and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is one of the legends of medicine. The first chapter is the one of Tigerstedt's experiments about renin, and Loesch and Gollblatt's model of renal hypertension. The race to elucidate the mechanisms of angiotensin, angiotensinogen and the angiotensin conversion enzyme cascade, by Braun Menéndez and Page teams, is a second chapter. The puzzle of this elegant cascade is completed by aldosterone isolation by the collaboration of Tait spouses and Tadeus Rechstein. As a corollary of these findings, Conn made the first description of primary hyperaldosteronism. The elucidation of RAAS pathophysiology naturally led to the synthesis of the antihypertensive captopril by Ondetti and Cushman, thereby opening the modern era of ACE inhibitors and ARII blockers. In March 2020, a viral pandemic caused by SARS-Cov-2 ignites the entire planet. This new coronavirus uses the RAAS angiotensin conversion enzyme type 2 (ACE-2) as a gateway. The SARS-CoV-2/ACE-2 signalling pathway and its pathological effects on the cardio-respiratory and renal system of these patients initiate a new chapter. The interaction of SARS-Cov-2/ACE-2 axis with anti-hypertensive agents, as well as with ACE-2 activators and ACE-2 homologs, takes a part of an active international study searching for therapeutic targets. This modern research, summarized in this article, will further develop our knowledge of RAAS and, hopefully, will improve the management of COVID-19 patients.

La percée des secrets de l'hypertension artérielle et du système rénine-angiotensine-aldostérone (SRAA) est une des histoires légendaires de la médecine. Les expériences de Tigerstedt sur la rénine, puis le modèle d'hypertension rénale de Loesch et de Gollblatt, constituent un premier chapitre. La course pour élucider le mécanisme de l'angiotensine, l'angiotensinogène et l'enzyme de conversion de l'angiotensine par les équipes de Braun Menéndez et de Page est un deuxième chapitre. Le puzzle de cette élégante cascade biochimique se complète par la description de l'aldostérone isolée par les époux Tait avec Tadeus Rechstein, et, comme corollaire, la description par Conn de l'hyperaldostéronisme primaire. La compréhension physiopathologique du SRAA amène naturellement à la synthèse de l'anti-hypertenseur captopril par Ondetti et Cushman, inaugurant l'ère moderne des inhibiteurs de l'enzyme de conversion de l'angiotensine (IEC) et des antagonistes des récepteurs AT1 de l'angiotensine 2 (ARAII ou sartans). En mars 2020, une pandémie virale déclenchée par le SARS-CoV-2 embrase la planète. Ce coronavirus utilise comme porte d'entrée cellulaire l'enzyme de conversion de l'angiotensine 2 (ACE-2) du SRAA. La voie de signalisation SARS-CoV-2/ACE-2 et ses effets, sur les systèmes cardio-respiratoire et rénal, ouvrent un nouveau chapitre. L'interaction de cet axe SARS-Cov-2/ACE-2 avec les antihypertenseurs, mais aussi les activateurs et homologues de l'ACE-2 font objet d'une étude internationale active, à la recherche de cibles thérapeutiques. Cette recherche, que nous synthétisons dans cet article, est destinée à développer notre connaissance sur le SRAA et, nous l'espérons, à améliorer peut-être la prise en charge des patients avec COVID-19.

[Chronic autoimmune gastritis : a multidisciplinary management]. / La gastrite chronique auto-immune : une prise en charge multidisciplinaire.

Chronic autoimmune gastritis (CAG) is a continuum of histological changes in gastric mucosa including: atrophy, intestinal metaplasia, dysplasia and finally, the occurrence of a neoplasm (gastric Neuroendocrine Tumors -NETs- and adenocarcinoma). The association with Hashimoto and Graves-Basedow disease is known as the thyrogastric autoimmune syndrome. While Helicobacter pylori (Hp) infection may be associated with CAG, the role of the gastric microbiota is ill-defined. The gastric hypochlorhydria determines a malabsorption of different micronutrients (iron, magnesium, calcium, vitamin B12) as well as drugs (thyroxine, etc.). Pernicious anemia is favoured by the deficit of parietal intrinsic factor that contributes to B12 malabsorption. Serology for Hp, serum pepsinogen I/II, increased gastrin levels, the presence of parietal cell antibodies and intrinsic factor antibodies may reveal CAG. High definition endoscopy associated with virtual chromoendoscopy seems promising for CAG diagnosis and follow-up. NETs type 1 treatment includes: endoscopic and surgical resection, somatostatin analogues and the recent availability of netazepide, a gastrin antagonist. We review herein advances in the treatment and diagnosis of CAG and associated autoimmune disorders, which may involve, in a multidisciplinary way, all practitioners.

La gastrite chronique auto-immune (GAI) est un continuum d'altérations de la muqueuse gastrique incluant : atrophie, métaplasie intestinale, dysplasie et, enfin, la survenue d'une néoplasie (tumeurs neuroendocrines [NETs] gastriques et adénocarcinome). L'association avec la maladie de Hashimoto et de Graves-Basedow est connue comme syndrome thyrogastrique auto-immun. Alors que l'Helicobacter pylori (Hp) peut s'associer avec la GAI, le rôle du microbiote gastrique est mal défini. L'hypochlorhydrie gastrique détermine une malabsorption de micronutriments (fer, magnésium, calcium, vitamine B12) et de médicaments (thyroxine et autres). L'anémie de Biermer est favorisée par le déficit de production du facteur intrinsèque pariétal, contribuant à la malabsorption de B12. Un rapport diminué de pepsinogène I/II, une augmentation de la gastrine, la présence d'anticorps anti-cellule pariétale, les anticorps anti-facteur intrinsèque et la sérologie pour Hp contribuent à révéler précocement le diagnostic de GAI. L'endoscopie haute définition, associée à la chromoendoscopie virtuelle, semble prometteuse dans le diagnostic et dans le suivi. Le traitement des NETs gastriques de type 1, favorisées par la GAI, inclut : la résection endoscopique/chirurgicale, les analogues de la somatostatine et l'antagoniste de la gastrine nétazépide. Nous résumons ici les avancées diagnostiques et thérapeutiques dans la GAI et dans les affections associées : elles impliquent, de façon multidisciplinaire, l'ensemble des praticiens.

[Cushing's syndrome during pregnancy : diagnostic and therapeutic difficulties]. / Le cas clinique du mois. Syndrome de Cushing au cours d'une grossesse : difficultés diagnostiques et thérapeutiques.

Cushing's syndrome (CS), which is often associated with infertility, exceptionally occurs in pregnancy, and markedly increases maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. Gestational CS may be challenging. Indeed, symptoms of hypercorticism may overlap with physiological hyperactivity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in normal pregnancy. This case report describes a pregnant patient that underwent a fertility treatment and developed a gestational CS due to an adrenocortical adenoma. Diagnosis of gestational CS was suspected at 13 weeks by a new onset of hypokalemia and arterial hypertension. A multidisciplinary approach was necessary during follow up. At 24 weeks, laparoscopic surgery retrieved a 4 cm adrenocortical adenoma. Cesarean surgery was successfully practiced at 31 weeks, because of preeclampsia. We discuss the differential diagnosis of hypokalemia and arterial hypertension during pregnancy and the diagnosis and management of gestational CS.

Le syndrome de Cushing (SC), déterminant fréquemment une infertilité, survient exceptionnellement au cours d´une grossesse. La présentation du SC au cours de la grossesse s'accompagne d'une plus grande morbimortalité maternelle et foetale. Son diagnostic représente un véritable défi pour le clinicien, car les symptômes de l'hypercorticisme se superposent aux modifications physiologiques induites par la stimulation de l`axe corticotrope lors de la grossesse. Nous rapportons le cas d'une patiente enceinte après une fécondation in vitro. A 13 semaines de grossesse, un SC gestationnel d'origine surrénalienne est suspecté dans le cadre d'une hypokaliémie et d'une hypertension artérielle inaugurales. Un suivi multidisciplinaire est instauré au cours de la grossesse. Une surrénalectomie gauche par voie laparoscopique est décidée à 24 semaines d'aménorrhée, avec l'exérèse complète d'un adénome cortical, de 4 cm de diamètre. La chirurgie par césarienne est pratiquée avec succès à 31 semaines de grossesse, car la patiente développait une pré-éclampsie. Nous discutons les différents diagnostics différentiels d'une hypokaliémie et d'une hypertension artérielle au cours de la grossesse et les modalités de prise en charge d´un SC gestationnel.

Persistent low levels of serum hCG due to heterophilic mouse antibodies: an unrecognized pitfall in the diagnosis of trophoblastic disease.

Phantom hCG refers to persistent mild elevations of hCG, leading physicians to unnecessary treatments whereas neither a true hCG nor a trophoblastic disease is present. We report the case of a 23-year-old woman with persistent low levels of serum hCG detected one month after miscarriage. As choriocarcinoma was suspected, a chemotherapy trial of methotrexate was prescribed, without any hCG reduction. Subsequently, laparoscopy ruled out a trophoblastic residue and the patient was referred to the Endocrine Unit for further investigations. While low levels of hCG were still detected in serum, no hCG was detected in the urine. In addition, when serum was processed in a HBT tube for revealing heterophilic antibodies, hCG was no longer detected. Such finding indicated the presence of phantom hCG due to heterophilic mouse antibodies interaction. This case raises the need of clinico-biological discussion to avoid inappropriate therapeutic decisions. Based on this case experience and after review of the literature, we suggest that current gynecological protocols for the diagnosis and treatment of trophoblastic disease should consider the inclusion of urinary hCG and/or a test for serum heterophilic antibodies when appropriate.

[A Familial Non Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma (FNMTC) : a clinical and genetic update]. / Cancer thyroïdien familial non médullaire: actualités cliniques et génétiques.

The syndrome of Familial Non Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma (FNMTC) includes two or more patients with an isolated non-medullary thyroid cancer (papillary, follicular, anaplastic) within the same family. To diagnose FNMTC, the clinician must exclude a syndromic presentation such as the syndromes of Cowden, Gardner or Werner, and the Carney Complex. Up to now, a hundred families with FNMTC have been genetically studied, including forms with (Ch19p13.2) or without oxyphilia (Ch2q21), in association with a multinodular goiter (Ch14q32), or with a renal cancer (Ch1q21). Several candidate genes of susceptibility have been proposed: SRGAP1, NKX2-1, FOXE1 and HABP2. So far, it is considered that familial cases represent less than 5 % of thyroid cancers. Although rare, these cases represent a unique opportunity to improve our understanding of thyroid cancer. The identification of candidate genes will enrich our knowledge of thyroid cancer pathophysiology. Based on the literature and our experience of the follow-up of eight families with FNMTC, we discuss epidemiological, clinical, pathological and genetic aspects of FNMTC with a view to improve the diagnosis and treatment of this disease.

Le syndrome de «Familial Non Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma¼ (FNMTC) suppose l'existence, au sein d'une même famille, de deux ou plusieurs patients avec un cancer thyroïdien non médullaire isolé (papillaire, folliculaire, anaplasique). Le diagnostic de FNMTC est retenu après exclusion d'une présentation syndromique comme celle liée aux syndromes de Cowden, Gardner, ou Werner et au Complexe de Carney. Une centaine de familles de FNMTC ont été bien caractérisées sur le plan génétique, incluant des formes papillaires avec (Ch19p13.2) ou sans oxyphilie (Ch2q21, 6q22), en association avec un goitre multinodulaire (14q32), ou avec un cancer rénal (Ch1q21). Plusieurs gènes de susceptibilité ont été proposés : SRGAP1, NKX2-1, FOXE1, et HABP2. On estime que les cas familiaux représentent moins de 5 % des cancers thyroïdiens. Bien que minoritaires, ils représentent une occasion exceptionnelle d'approfondir notre compréhension de la tumorigenèse du cancer thyroïdien et d'identifier des gènes candidats pouvant participer à leur physiopathologie. A partir d'une revue de la littérature et de notre expérience sur le suivi de huit familles avec FNMTC, nous discutons des aspects épidémiologiques, cliniques, pathologiques et génétiques permettant d'aboutir à un meilleur diagnostic et à une prise en charge de ce syndrome oncologique.

[Alpha interferon induced hyperthyroidism: a case report and review of the literature]. / LE CAS CLINIQUE DU MOIS. Hyperthyroïdie induite par interféron alpha: rapport d'un cas et revue de la literature.

Treatment with alpha interferon in hepatitis C triggers a thyroid autoimmunity in a variable percentage of cases (2-8%). This complication raises some questions about its screening, the possibility to continue anti-viral therapy and thyroid treatment. Alpha interferon has an immunomodulatory effect on the thyroid, but also an inhibitory effect on thyroid hormone synthesis. This explains the occurrence of cases of thyroid dysfunction, which often remain undetected because of their latency. Factors predicting thyroid dysfunction with interferon use are: female sex, history of thyroid disease and previous autoimmunity. Several clinical aspects are encountered including hypothyroidism (the most frequent depending on the series) and hyperthyroidism related to Graves' disease. For their detection, a cooperation between general practionners, gastroenterologists and endocrinologists is mandatory thyroid function tests are requested before, during and after treatment,with alpha interferon. Therapeutic aspects of thyroid disorders range from simple monitoring to symptomatic treatment, such as thyroxine prescription in the presence of hypothyroidism. Antithyroid drugs radioactive iodine or thyroid surgery are used in cases of severe or persistent Graves' disease induced by alpha interferon.

El síndrome tirogástrico autoinmune: sus efectos sobre los micronutrientes y la tumorigénesis gástrica / The Thyrogastric Autoimmune Syndrome: Its Effects on Micronutrients and Gastric Tumorigenesis

El síndrome autoinmune tirogástrico (SAT) fue descrito en pacientes en quienes el suero presentaba reacciones cruzadas de anticuerpos dirigidos contra los antígenos de células parietales gástricas y tiroideas. A través de dos casos describimos el espectro patológico de este síndrome. El primero asocia una tiroiditis de Hashimoto y una anemia perniciosa, desarrollando durante el seguimiento un tumor neuroendocrino gástrico. El segundo caso presenta una enfermedad de Graves y una gastritis autoinmune, secundaria a Helicobacter Pylori: esta última es reversible luego de tratamiento. Se considera que la poliendocrinopatía autoinmune de tipo III (dentro de la cual puede inscribirse el síndrome tirogástrico) es rara, pero no lo es en nuestra experiencia. Un total de 13 % (32/240) de los pacientes con tiroiditis que hemos seguido prospectivamente, tienen también una gastritis autoinmune. Helicobacter pylori está claramente implicado en el 16 % de estos casos con gastritis autoinmune. Infección, malabsorción y gastritis son potencialmente reversibles después del tratamiento de erradicación bacteriana. En el 84 % restante de los pacientes con gastritis y tiroiditis, no se encuentran pruebas serológicas o histológicas de Helicobacter pylori. La autoinmunidad gástrica es entonces irreversible, y conduce a una hipergastrinemia, hipoclorhidria y atrofia gástrica severa. La hipergastrinemia estimula la hiperplasia de las células enterocromafines, con riesgo de progresión a un tumor neuroendocrino. Proponemos un esquema diagnóstico novedoso para mejor caracterización del síndrome tirogástrico. Exponemos la literatura sobre el tema y discutimos a partir de algunos modelos animales pertinentes sobre la autoinmunidad gástrica infecciosa. Rev Argent Endocrinol Metab 51:37-43, 2014 Los autores declaran no poseer conflictos de interés.

The thyrogastric autoimmune syndrome (TAS) was described in patients in whom the serum cross-reacted both with gastric parietal cells antigens and thyroid antigens. We report two cases illustrating the spectrum of pathological features of TAS. The first one is a case of Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis associated with pernicious anemia, further developing a gastric neuroendocrine tumor during follow up. The second one is a case of Graves’ disease and autoimmune reversible gastritis, While type III autoimmune polyendocrinopathy (which includes TAS) is considered to be rare, this was not the case in our experience. A total of 13 % (32/240) of the patients with thyroiditis that we have prospectively followed have also autoimmune gastritis. Helicobacter pylori is clearly implicated in 16 % of the cases of autoimmune gastritis. Infection, malabsorption and gastritis are potentially reversible after bacterial eradication treatment. In the remaining 84 % of patients with gastritis, no histological or serological evidence of Helicobacter pyloriwas found. Gastric autoimmunity is then irreversible, leading to gastric severe atrophy, hypochlorhydria and hypergastrinemia. Hypergastrinemia stimulates enterochromaffin cell hyperplasia, progressing eventually to neuroendocrine tumors. We propose a diagnostic approach to improve the characterization of TAS, including a literature review and discussing some relevant animal models of infectious gastric autoimmunity. Rev Argent Endocrinol Metab 51:37-43, 2014 No financial conflicts of interest exists.

[The thyrogastric syndrome: its effects on micronutriments and gastric tumorigenesis]. / Le syndrome auto-immun thyro-gastrique: ses effets sur les micronutriments et la tumorigenèse gastrique.

The thyrogastric autoimmune syndrome (TAS) was described in patients in whom the serum cross-reacted both with gastric parietal cells antigens and thyroid antigens. We report two cases illustrating the spectrum of pathogical features of TAS. The first case associates Hashimoto's thyroiditis and anemia perniciosa,and develops a gastric neuroendocrine tumor during follow up. The second case presents with a Graves' disease and an autoimmune reversible gastritis, secondary to Helicobacter pylori. Whereas type III autoimmune polyendocrinopathy is rare, TAS is frequent in our experience. Some 13% (32/240) of patients that we have prospectively followed affected with thyroiditis have also autoimmune gastritis. Helicobacter pylori is clearly implicated in 16% of autoimmune gastritis cases. Infection, malabsorption and gastritis are potentially reversible after bacterial eradication treatment. In the other 84% of gastritis patients, no histological or serological proof of Helicobacter pylori is found. Gastric autoimmunity is then irreversible, leading to gastric severe atrophy, hypochlorhydria and hypergastrinemia. Hypergastrinemia stimulates enterochromaffin cell hyperplasia, possibly progressing to neuroendocrine tumors. We propose a diagnostic approach to improve the characterization of TAS. We review the literature on the subject and discuss some interesting animal models of infectious gastric autoimmunity.

[How to explore ... congenital isolated hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism]. / Comment j'EXPLORE ... un hypogonadisme hypogonadotrope congénital isolé.

Congenital Isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (CIHH) is caused by an inherited mechanism of impairment of the pituitary-gonadal axis, interfering with gonads' control. Currently, different forms of HHCI with (Kallmann syndrome or KS) or without anosmia-hyposmia are known. There are six forms of KS already described but in several cases no genetic mutation is found. The genetic anomalies already described are: KAL1 (locus Xp23) coding for anosmine-1, KAL-2 or FGFRI (8p11. locus 2 - p11.1) coding for Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 1 (FGFR1), KAL4 or PROk2 (locus 3p21.1) and KAL3 or ProKR2 (locus 20p13) coding respectively for the Prokinecitin-2 and its receptor, KAL5 or CHD7 (locus_8q12.1) coding for a chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein-7 gene (CHD7) and lastly KAL6 or FGF8 (10Q 24 loci) coding for Fibroblast Growth Factor 8. The other genetic anomalies without anosmia are less frequent. These are associated either with Gnrhl gene (8p2-11. 2), GnRHR (4q21.2), GPR54 (19p13),TAC3R or neurokinine receptor 3 (4 q 25), LH (19q13.32) or FSH (11p13). The isolated congenital hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism phenotype is variable depending on gender, the importance of the deficit, and ultimately, according to a specific regulatory mechanism of the axis, affected by an inherited genetic anomaly. In this review, we describe the essential aspects of the different phenotypes and genotypes of HHCI, in order to assess clinicians an early disease's diagnosis and management.

[The endocrine effects of smoking]. / Le tabac et ses effets sur le système endocrinien.

Almost one third of men and women smoke in Belgium. Besides the well known tobacco's neck and cardiopulmonary systems adverse effects as well as associated neoplasms, today we recognize other deleterious consequences of tobacco on the neuroendocrine, thyroid and reproductive systems. Not only active smokers but also the fetus carried by a smoking mother is at risk for important health problems. Tobacco is a recognized risk factor of occurrence of ophtalmopathy. Some of the active components of tobacco as the thiocyanates are goitrogenic. Tobacco is a risk factor for men and women's infertility. Newborns from parents that smoke are at risk for sudden death. These consequences represent a major public health issue. A campaign for smoking cessation has been recently launched by the Federation of Public Health Service and the INAMI in Belgium.

[Traumatic brain injury and subarachnoid hemorrhage as a cause of hypopituitarism: a review]. / Hypopituitarisme consécutif aux atteintes cérébrales: le traumatisme crânien et l'hémorragie sous-arachnoïdienne mis en cause.

Brain injuries namely traumatic brain injuries (TBI) and subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) are relevant causes of acquired adult hypopituitarism, perhaps more prevalent than ever believed. TBI represent a major health problem with an annual incidence of 300 cases per 100.000. SAH affects six new cases per 1.000.000 habitants in USA. In Belgium we estimate nearly 30.000 new TBI cases and 600 SAH cases per year. In the English literature, TBI secondary hypopituitarism has been well documented in 14 retrospective and prospective series accounting for 1.077 cases. In all these series the main pituitary deficits were: GH (14%), ACTH (14%), gonadotrope (18%), TSH (7%) and diabetes insipidus (4%). SAH was documented as a cause of hypopituitarism in three retrospective series accounting for 110 cases and in one prospective series. In all these series main pituitary deficits were GH (25%), ACTH (15%), gonadotrope (8.5%), TSH (6%) and diabetes insipidus (4%). In this review, we analyze recent data and discuss diagnostic and treatment features of secondary hypopituitarism due TBI and SAH.