Development of leaf-adhesive pesticide nanocapsules with pH-responsive release to enhance retention time on crop leaves and improve utilization efficiency.

Pesticides play a very important role in pest control and plant protection. However, they can be limited by a tendency to cause ecological system damage due to significant losses into the environment. To increase pesticide utilization efficiency, we developed highly leaf-adhesive avermectin nanocapsules (Av-pH-cat@CS) with pH-responsive controlled release properties. The Av-pH-cat@CS nanocapsules displayed good thermal stability and photostability in response to UV light irradiation. The Av-pH-cat@CS nanocapsules could be disrupted at low pH and they exhibited excellent controlled release in response to pH, which improved the release of avermectins. In addition, the Av-pH-cat@CS nanocapsules were highly adhesive to crop leaves as a result of strong hydrogen bonding, which prolonged the retention time on crop leaves. The Av-pH-cat@CS nanocapsules with pH-responsive release and strong leaf adhesion improved the control efficacy and enhanced the utilization efficiency. Our findings offer a promising approach to prolonging pesticide duration on crop leaves and improving the utilization efficiency.

Deciphering the Biosynthesis of TDP-ß-l-oleandrose in Avermectin.

Avermectin (AVM) refers to eight macrolides containing a common l-oleandrosyl disaccharide chain indispensable to their antiparasitic bioactivities. We delineated the biosynthetic pathway of TDP-ß-l-oleandrose (1), the sugar donor of AVM, by characterizing AveBVIII, AveBV, and AveBVII as TDP-sugar 3-ketoreductase, 5-epimerase, and 3-O-methyltransferase, respectively. On the basis of this pathway, we successfully reconstituted the biosynthesis of 1 in Escherichia coli. Our work completes the biosynthetic pathway of AVM and lays a solid foundation for further studies.

Design, Synthesis, and Insecticidal Activity of Novel Doramectin Derivatives Containing Acylurea and Acylthiourea Based on Hydrogen Bonding.

Our recent investigation on the insecticidal activities of several doramectin derivatives preliminarily revealed that the presence of hydrogen bonds at the C4″ position of the molecule with target protein γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor was crucial for retaining high insecticidal activity. As a continuation of our research work on the development of new insecticides, two series of novel acylurea and acylthiourea doramectin derivatives were designed and synthesized. The bioassay results indicated that the newly synthesized compounds (5o, 5t, and 6t) exhibited higher insecticidal activity against diamondback moth, oriental armyworm, and corn borer than the control compounds doramectin, commercial avermectins, chlorbenzuron, and lead compound 3g in our laboratory. Specifically, compound 5t was identified as the most promising insecticide against diamondback moth, with a final mortality rate of 80.00% at the low concentration of 12.50 mg/L, showing approximately 7.75-fold higher potency than the parent doramectin (LC50 value of 48.1547 mg/L), 6.52-fold higher potency than commercial avermectins (LC50 value of 40.5507 mg/L), and 3.98-fold higher potency than compound 3g (LC50 value of 24.7742 mg/L). Additionally, molecular docking simulations revealed that compound 5t (2.17, 2.20, 2.56, and 2.83 Å) displayed stronger hydrogen-bond action in binding with the GABA receptor, better than that of compound 5o (1.64 and 2.15 Å) and compound 6t (2.20 and 2.31 Å) at the C4″ position. This work demonstrated that these compounds containing hydrogen-bond groups might contribute to the improvement of insecticidal activity and supply certain hints toward structure optimization design for the development of new insecticides.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Pesticidal Activity of Emamectin Benzoate Nanoformulations against Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).

Using nanotechnology to develop new formulations of pesticides is considered a possible option in enhancing the efficiency, safety, and photostability of pesticides under various climatic conditions. In the present study, two novel nanoformulations (NFs) were successfully prepared based on nano-delivery systems for emamectin benzoate (EMB) by loading it on cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and silicon dioxide nanoparticles (SNPs) as carriers through a freeze-drying method. The synthesized nanoformulations were examined using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The results showed that SNPs and CNCs had a loading efficiency of 43.31% and 15.04% (w/w) for EMB, respectively, and could effectively protect EMB from photolysis under UV radiation. The LC50 values for EMB + SNPs, EMB + CNCs, and EMB commercial formulation against Phenacoccus solenopsis were 0.01, 0.05, and 0.31 µg/mL, respectively, indicating that both NFs were more effective than the EMB commercial formulation. This work seeks to develop new nano-carriers for potential applications of pesticides in plant protection, which will reduce the recommended dose of pesticides and thereby decrease the amount of pesticide residue in food and the environment.

Design, synthesis, insecticidal activity and molecular docking of doramectin derivatives.

A series of new doramectin derivatives containing carbamate, ester and sulfonate were synthesized, and their structures were characterized by 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and high-resolution mass spectrum (HRMS). Their insecticidal activities against oriental armyworm, diamondback moth, and corn borer were evaluated and compared with the parent doramectin and commercial avermectins, metolcarb, fenpropathrin. Among all compounds, three compounds (3a, 3g and 3h) showed excellent insecticidal effect. In particular, compound 3g containing cyclopropyl carbamate against oriental armyworm, diamondback moth, and corn borer, exhibited the most promising insecticidal activity with the final mortality rate of 66.67%, 36.67%, 40.00% at the concentration of 12.5 mg/L, respectively. The LC50 values of 3g were 5.8859, 22.3214, and 22.0205 mg/L, showing 6.74, 2.23, 2.21-fold higher potency than parent doramectin (LC50 values of 39.6907, 49.7736, and 48.6129 mg/L) and 6.83, 1.93, 3.36-fold higher potency than commercial avermectins (LC50 values of 40.2489, 42.9922, and 73.9508 mg/L). Additionally, molecular docking simulations revealed that 3g displayed stronger hydrogen-bonding action in binding with the GABA receptor than parent doramectin, which were crucial for keeping high insecticidal activity. The present work demonstrated that these compounds containing alkyl carbamate group could be considered as potential candidates for the development of novel pesticides in the future.

Synthesis, biological activities and structure-activity relationships for new avermectin analogues.

In an effort to discover new molecules with good insecticidal activities, more than 40 new avermectin derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for their biological activities against three species of arachnids, insects and nematodes, namely, Tetranychus Cinnabarinus, Aphis craccivora and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. All the tested compounds showed potent inhibitory activities against three insect species. Notably, the majority of compounds exhibited high selectivity against T. cinnabarinus, some of which were much better in comparison with avermectin. Especially compounds 9j (LC50: 0.005 µM) and 16d (LC50: 0.002 µM) were 2.5- and 4.7-fold more active than avermectin (LC50: 0.013 µM), respectively, against T. cinnabarinus. Moreover, compounds 9b, 9d-f, 9h, 9j, 9l, 9n, 9p, 9r, 9v and 17d showed superior activities with LC50 values of 2.959-5.013 µM compared to that of 1 (LC50: 6.746 µM) against B. xylophilus. Meanwhile, the insecticidal activities of compounds 9f, 9g, 9h, and 9m against A. craccivora were 7-8 times better than that of avermectin, with LC50 values of 7.744, 5.634, 6.809, 7.939 and 52.234 µM, respectively. Furthermore, QSAR analysis showed that the molecular shape, size, connectivity degree and electronic distribution of avermectin analogues had substantial effects on insecticidal potency. These preliminary results provided useful insight in guiding further modifications of avermectin in the development of potential new insecticides.

Total synthesis of avermectin B1a revisited.

Avermectins were isolated as compounds possessing anthelmintic activity from the culture broth of Streptomycesavermitilis by Omura and co-workers. Owing to their potent anthelmintic and insecticidal activities, as well as their unique pentacyclic architecture, the avermectin family attracted keen interest from synthetic organic chemists. We have recently completed a more efficient and straightforward total synthesis of avermectin B1a, as compared with previous syntheses.

Designed biosynthesis of 25-methyl and 25-ethyl ivermectin with enhanced insecticidal activity by domain swap of avermectin polyketide synthase.

BACKGROUND: Avermectin and milbemycin are important 16-membered macrolides that have been widely used as pesticides in agriculture. However, the wide use of these pesticides inevitably causes serious drug resistance, it is therefore imperative to develop new avermectin and milbemycin analogs. The biosynthetic gene clusters of avermectin and milbemycin have been identified and the biosynthetic pathways have been elucidated. Combinatorial biosynthesis by domain swap provides an efficient strategy to generate chemical diversity according to the module polyketide synthase (PKS) assembly line. RESULTS: The substitution of aveDH2-KR2 located in avermectin biosynthetic gene cluster in the industrial avermectin-producing strain Streptomyces avermitilis NA-108 with the DNA regions milDH2-ER2-KR2 located in milbemycin biosynthetic gene cluster in Streptomyces bingchenggensis led to S. avermitilis AVE-T27, which produced ivermectin B1a with high yield of 3450 ± 65 µg/ml. The subsequent replacement of aveLAT-ACP encoding the loading module of avermectin PKS with milLAT-ACP encoding the loading module of milbemycin PKS led to strain S. avermitilis AVE-H39, which produced two new avermectin derivatives 25-ethyl and 25-methyl ivermectin (1 and 2) with yields of 951 ± 46 and 2093 ± 61 µg/ml, respectively. Compared to commercial insecticide ivermectin, the mixture of 25-methyl and 25-ethyl ivermectin (2:1 = 3:7) exhibited 4.6-fold increase in insecticidal activity against Caenorhabditis elegans. Moreover, the insecticidal activity of the mixture of 25-methyl and 25-ethyl ivermectin was 2.5-fold and 5.7-fold higher than that of milbemycin A3/A4 against C. elegans and the second-instar larva of Mythimna separate, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Two new avermectin derivatives 25-methyl and 25-ethyl ivermectin were generated by the domain swap of avermectin PKS. The enhanced insecticidal activity of 25-methyl and 25-ethyl ivermectin implied the potential use as insecticide in agriculture. Furthermore, the high yield and genetic stability of the engineered strains S. avermitilis AVE-T27 and AVE-H39 suggested the enormous potential in industrial production of the commercial insecticide ivermectin and 25-methyl/25-ethyl ivermectins, respectively.

Synthesis of photoreactive ivermectin B1a derivatives and their actions on Haemonchus and Bombyx glutamate-gated chloride channels.

Glutamate-gated chloride channels (GluCls) are inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors that are present only in invertebrates such as nematodes and insects. These channels are important targets of insecticidal, acaricidal, and anthelmintic macrolides such as avermectins, ivermectin (IVM), and milbemycins. To identify the amino acid residues that interact with IVM in GluCls, three IVM B1a derivatives with different photoreactive substitutions at C-13 were synthesized in the present study. These derivatives displayed low- or subnanomolar affinity for parasitic nematode (Haemonchus contortus) and silkworm (Bombyx mori) GluCls expressed in COS-1 cells. The derivatives also activated homomeric H. contortus GluCls expressed in Xenopus oocytes. The results indicate that synthesized photoreactive IVM B1a derivatives have superior affinity and functionality for chemically labeling the macrolide-binding site in GluCls. .

Stereodivergent approach to the avermectins based on "super silyl" directed aldol reactions.

A stereodivergent approach to the spiroketal fragment of the avermectins is described. The strategy utilizes a sequence of three aldol reactions directed by the tris(trimethylsilyl)silyl "super silyl" group. Central to this strategy is that each aldol reaction can be controlled to allow access to either diastereomer in high stereoselectivity, thereby affording 16 stereoisomers along the same linear skeleton. The aldol products can be transformed into spiroketals, including an advanced intermediate in the total synthesis of avermectin A1a.

Synthetic biology of avermectin for production improvement and structure diversification.

Natural products are still key sources of current clinical drugs and innovative therapeutic agents. Since wild-type microorganisms only produce natural products in very small quantities, yields of production strains need to be improved by breaking down the precise genetic and biochemical circuitry. Herein, we use avermectins as an example of production improvement and chemical structure diversification by synthetic biology. Avermectins are macrocyclic lactones produced by Streptomyces avermitilis and are well known and widely used for antiparasitic therapy. Given the importance of this molecule and its derivatives, many efforts and strategies were employed to improve avermectin production and generate new active analogues. This review describes the current status of synthetic strategies successfully applied for developing natural-product-producing strains and discusses future prospects for the application of enhanced avermectin production.

Novel photodegradable insecticide W/TiO(2)/Avermectin nanocomposites obtained by polyelectrolytes assembly.

Stable and even microcrystals of Avermectin (AVM) were produced by recrystallization in presence of a stabilizer. Sequential layer growth was achieved by the layer-by-layer (LbL) self-assembly of biocompatible polyelectrolytes (PEs). The coated colloids were characterized using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The in vitro release of Avermectin from microcapsules was studied under the simulated insect midgut conditions. W-doped TiO(2) photocatalysts were synthesized by a simple hydrothermal method, and characterized by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area measurements and SEM. The photocatalytic activities of photocatalysts, which were undoped with TiO(2) and W-doped TiO(2), were evaluated by the photocatalytic oxidation degradation of AVM microcapsules in aqueous solution under UV illumination. The toxicity of the photodegradable insecticide was evaluated by the adult stage Martianus dermestoides. The results showed that AVM microcrystals which were obtained by association had a mean length of 13.8µm and a zeta potential of -34.7mV. The drug loading and encapsulation efficiency were 65.57±0.96% and 46.15±0.96%, respectively. The in vitro release experiments revealed that the polyelectrolytes prolonged the release time of the encapsulated AVM microcrystals. The sample which was prepared at 120°C with 4.0mol% W-doped amount had the highest photocatalytic activity. Toxicity of the novel photodegradable insecticide was higher in the adult stage compared to the 95% AVM as indicated by the lower LC(50) value.

Synthesis of natural products containing spiroketals via intramolecular hydrogen abstraction.

Although known for over a quarter of a century, the oxidative radical cyclisation route to spiroketals has found limited use in natural product synthesis in comparison to classical approaches. Its successful application in this field of research forms the subject of this perspective.

New ventures in the chemistry of avermectins.

An overview is given on recent work towards new avermectin derivatives of extremely high insecticidal and acaricidal activity. These compounds were prepared from commercially available abamectin (avermectin B1) 1. For the synthesis, many novel entries have been opened up, making use of modern synthetic methods and applying them, for the first time, to the chemistry of avermectins. Several types of avermectin derivatives can be regarded as key innovations in the field. These are, in particular, 4''-deoxy-4''-(S)-amino avermectins 3, 4'-O-alkoxyalkyl avermectin monosaccharides 5, 4''-deoxy-4''-C-substituted 4''-amino avermectins 6 and 2''-substituted avermectins 7. 4''-Deoxy-4''-(S)-amino avermectins 3 were obtained by the consecutive application of the Staudinger and Aza-Wittig reaction. 4'-O-Alkoxyalkyl avermectin monosaccharides 5 were prepared by alkoxyalkylation of 5-O-protected avermectin monosaccharide. For the synthesis of 4''-deoxy-4''-C-substituted 4''-amino avermectins 6, several methods were used to construct the fully substituted 4''-carbon centre, such as a modified Strecker synthesis, the addition of organometallics to a 4''-sulfinimine and a modified Ugi approach. In order to prepare 2''-substituted avermectins 7, 5-O-protected avermectin monosaccharide was coupled with carbohydrate building blocks. An alternative synthesis involved the hitherto unknown enol ether chemistry of 4''-oxo-avermectin and the conjugate addition of a cuprate to an avermectin 2'',3''-en-4''-one. In addition, a number of other highly potent derivatives were synthesised. Examples are 4''-O-amino avermectins 8, as well as products arising from intramolecular rhodium catalysed amidations and carbene insertions. A radical cyclisation led to an intriguing rearrangement of the avermectin skeleton. Many of the new avermectins surpassed the activity of abamectin 1 against insects and mites.

Ivermectin-derived leishmanicidal compounds.

In the present study a family of macrocyclic and acyclic analogues as well as seco-analogues of avermectins were prepared from commercial Ivermectin (IVM) and their antileishmanial activity assayed against axenic promastigote and intracellular amastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis. Contrarily to the filaricidal activity, the leishmanicidal potentiality of avermectin analogues does not appear to depend on the integrity of the non-conjugated Delta(3,4)-hexahydrobenzofuran moiety. Conjugated Delta(2,3)-IVM or its corresponding conjugated secoester show higher anti-leishmania activity than the parent compound. Surprisingly, the diglycosylated northern sub-unit exhibits the same anti-amastigote potentiality as the southern hexahydrobenzofuran. As expected for compounds derived from the widely used Ivermectin antibiotic, little toxicity has been noticed for most of the novel analogues prepared.

The in vitro characterization of the iterative avermectin glycosyltransferase AveBI reveals reaction reversibility and sugar nucleotide flexibility.

The glycosyltransferase AveBI, which is involved in the biosynthesis of the macrolide antihelmintic avermectin (AVM), was characterized in vitro. AveBI was confirmed to catalyze two separate iterative additions of l-oleandrose, and the reversibility of AveBI-catalyzed reaction was also demonstrated. Investigation of sugar nucleotide specificity revealed 10 unique sugar nucleotide substrates which, in combination with five distinct aglycones, led to the production of 50 differentially glycosylated AVM variants.

Natural insights for chemical biologists.

Chemical biologists studying natural-product pathways encoded in genomes have unearthed new chemistry and insights into the evolution of biologically active metabolites.

Synthesis and insecticidal activity of 5-acyloxyimino-5-deoxyavermectin B1 derivatives.

Four novel 5-acyloxyimino-5-deoxyavermectin B1 compounds have been synthesized from avermectin B1 by selective oxidization of the hydroxy group at C-5, followed by oximation and convenient esterification. Their structures were confirmed by IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR and MS. Insecticidal activities of the intermediate oxime and the four new acyl derivatives were evaluated against Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera exigua and Musca domestica.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel 4"-alkoxy avermectin derivatives.

Novel 4"-alkoxy avermectin derivatives were synthesized via rhodium carbenoid mediated O-H insertion reaction and tested for antiparasite activity against Artemia salina and Caenorhabditis elegans.