Exercise facilities and the prevalence of obesity and type 2 diabetes in the city of Madrid.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We aimed to study the association between the availability of exercise facilities and the likelihood of obesity and type 2 diabetes in the adult population of Madrid, Spain. METHODS: We analysed the electronic medical records of all 1,270,512 residents of Madrid aged 40-75 years in 2017. Exercise facility availability was defined as the count of exercise facilities in a 1000 m street network buffer around each residential building entrance. Poisson regression with standard errors clustered at census tract level was used to assess prevalence ratios of exercise facility availability tertiles and obesity and type 2 diabetes. We also examined stratified results by tertiles of area-level socioeconomic status (SES) and sex. RESULTS: People living in areas with lower availability of exercise facilities had a higher prevalence of obesity (prevalence ratio [PR] 1.22 [95% CI 1.20, 1.25]) and diabetes (PR 1.38 [95% CI 1.34, 1.43]). We observed effect modification by area-level SES (p<0.001), with stronger associations for residents living in low-SES areas and no association for residents living in high-SES areas. Associations with type 2 diabetes were stronger among women compared with men, while associations with obesity were similar by sex. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: People living in areas with low availability of exercise facilities had a higher prevalence of obesity and type 2 diabetes, and this association was strongest in low-SES areas and for women. Understanding the potential role of exercise facilities in driving inequities in obesity and type 2 diabetes prevalence may inform interventions to reduce health inequities.

Associations between individual and environmental determinants and physical activity levels of an active population during the Spanish lockdown.

Restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to decrease physical activity (PA) levels. The purpose of the study was to explore the associations between age, gender, and exercise facilities-type membership and physical activity levels during COVID-19 lockdown among users of exercise facilities from Spain. Participants were recruited among the members of 84 exercise facilities across Spain. Data was collected through an online questionnaire between 5th and 20th of April 2020 during the COVID-19 lockdown. A total of 7062 participants met inclusion criteria and responded correctly to the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Lower levels of total PA were found in women compared with men (ß = -26, 95%CI: -40 to -13), and among older adults (ß = -48, 95%CI: -10 to -85) compared with younger ones. Moreover, users of private facilities showed higher levels of PA (ß = 40, 95%CI: 13 to 66) than those from low-cost and public facilities (reference). Lastly, women from private facilities showed greater levels of PA (ß = 63, 95%CI: 29 to 96) than low cost and public's users, an increase higher than what was found in men (ß = 7, 95%CI: -38 to 52). Therefore, gender, age and the type of exercise facility's subscription had a relevant influence on PA levels during COVID-19 lockdown in an active population. These findings are useful for public health recommendations, in order to identify subpopulations of previously active people at risk of being physically inactive during and after this pandemic.

Access to and availability of exercise facilities in Madrid: an equity perspective.

BACKGROUND: Identifying socioeconomic determinants that are associated with access to and availability of exercise facilities is fundamental to supporting physical activity engagement in urban populations, which in turn, may reduce health inequities. This study analysed the relationship between area-level socioeconomic status (SES) and access to, and availability of, exercise facilities in Madrid, Spain. METHODS: Area-level SES was measured using a composite index based on seven sociodemographic indicators. Exercise facilities were geocoded using Google Maps and classified into four types: public, private, low-cost and sessional. Accessibility was operationalized as the street network distance to the nearest exercise facility from each of the 125,427 residential building entrances (i.e. portals) in Madrid. Availability was defined as the count of exercise facilities in a 1000 m street network buffer around each portal. We used a multilevel linear regression and a zero inflated Poisson regression analyses to assess the association between area-level SES and exercise facility accessibility and availability. RESULTS: Lower SES areas had a lower average distance to the closest facility, especially for public and low-cost facilities. Higher SES areas had higher availability of exercise facilities, especially for private and seasonal facilities. CONCLUSION: Public and low-cost exercise facilities were more proximate in low SES areas, but the overall number of facilities was lower in these areas compared with higher SES areas. Increasing the number of exercise facilities in lower SES areas may be an intervention to improve health equity.

Exercise facility availability and incidence of type 2 diabetes and complications in Spain: A population-based retrospective cohort 2015-2018.

BACKGROUND: To study the association between exercise facility availability and type 2 diabetes incidence and its complications, and to explore effect modification by socioeconomic status (SES) and sex in the Madrid adult population. METHODS: A multilevel longitudinal design, based on a population-based retrospective cohort including 1,214,281 residents of Madrid (Spain) aged 40-75 years from 2015 to 2018. Outcomes were type 2 diabetes incidence and macrovascular (cardiac ischemia and/or stroke) and microvascular (chronic kidney disease, retinopathy, and/or peripheral vascular disease) complications in those with diabetes at baseline. Exercise facility availability was defined as the count of exercise facilities in a 1000 m street network buffer around each participant's residence. Poisson regression models with robust standard errors were used to estimate the risk ratios (RR). Interactions were explored with SES tertiles and by sex. RESULTS: Residents living in areas with lower exercise facility availability showed higher risk of type 2 diabetes (RRtertile3vs1 = 1.25, CI95% 1.21-1.30) as well as macrovascular (RRTertile3vs1 = 1.09 CI95% 1.00-1.19), and microvascular (RRTertile3vs1 = 1.10 CI95% 1.01-1.19) complications. Associations were strongest in low SES areas for type 2 diabetes (RRtertile3vs1-LOW-SES = 1.22, CI95% 1.12-1.32; RRtertile3vs1-HIGH-SES = 0.91, CI95% 0.85-0.98) and microvascular complications (RRtertile3vs1-LOW-SES = 1.12, CI95% 0,94-1,33; RRtertile3vs1-HIGH-SES = 0.88, CI95% 0.73-1.05). CONCLUSIONS: Living in areas with lower availability of exercise facilities was associated with a greater risk of type 2 diabetes and its complications. Increasing exercise opportunities, particularly in low SES areas, could help reduce the social gradient of diabetes and its complications.

Trends and determinants of social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors in Spain: a mixed-methods study.

This sequential mixed-methods study aims to: 1) assess spatial and temporal trends in cardiovascular risk factors by socioeconomic position from 2001 to 2020 in Spain; 2) explore public health professionals' perspectives regarding interventions that might have impacted these inequities; and 3) analyze determinants on social inequities in cardiovascular risk factors. First, we will measure the change in absolute and relative social inequities in eight cardiovascular risk factors through time trend analysis using repeated cross-sectional data from both National and European Health Surveys for Spain from 2001 to 2020. Second, we will interview key informants -both at the regional and national level-, to contextualize data obtained in phase 1 and capture the content and variation of policies across regions. Third, we will use econometric methods to analyze how these identified interventions have impacted these social inequities within and across regions.

Influence of home/school environments on children's obesity, diet, and physical activity: the SUECO study protocol.

OBJECTIVE: The SUECO study examines the relationship between urban obesogenic environments and health outcomes among school-age children in the city of Madrid, Spain. We will study how features of the urban environment (related to the food- and the physical activity environment) associate with children's anthropometrics, eating habits, and physical activity levels. METHOD: We describe the study protocol of this multilevel study in a representative sample of school-age children in the city of Madrid (2017; n=5,961 children ages 3-12). Main outcome variables include anthropometrics (body mass index, waist circumference, and body fat), healthy and unhealthy consumption measures, and physical activity measures. The primary explanatory variables are grouped into food environment (e.g., unhealthy food retailers' density) and physical activity environment (e.g., walkability, physical activity opportunities) variable categories. Multilevel models will be used to calculate the associations between each indicator and obesity and physical inactivity.