Therapeutic Efficacy-Potentiated and Diseased Organ-Targeting Nanovesicles Derived from Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Spinal Cord Injury Treatment.

Human mesenchymal stem cell (hMSC)-derived exosomes have been spotlighted as a promising therapeutic agent for cell-free regenerative medicine. However, poor organ-targeting ability and insufficient therapeutic efficacy of systemically injected hMSC-exosomes were identified as critical limitations for their further applications. Therefore, in this study we fabricated iron oxide nanoparticle (IONP)-incorporated exosome-mimetic nanovesicles (NV-IONP) from IONP-treated hMSCs and evaluated their therapeutic efficacy in a clinically relevant model for spinal cord injury. Compared to exosome-mimetic nanovesicles (NV) prepared from untreated hMSCs, NV-IONP not only contained IONPs which act as a magnet-guided navigation tool but also carried greater amounts of therapeutic growth factors that can be delivered to the target cells. The increased amounts of therapeutic growth factors inside NV-IONP were attributed to IONPs that are slowly ionized to iron ions which activate the JNK and c-Jun signaling cascades in hMSCs. In vivo systemic injection of NV-IONP with magnetic guidance significantly increased the amount of NV-IONP accumulating in the injured spinal cord. Accumulated NV-IONP enhanced blood vessel formation, attenuated inflammation and apoptosis in the injured spinal cord, and consequently improved spinal cord function. Taken together, these findings highlight the development of therapeutic efficacy-potentiated extracellular nanovesicles and demonstrate their feasibility for repairing injured spinal cord.

Early-onset stroke among people with disabilities: a national database study in South Korea from 2008 to 2017.

Background: This study investigated 10-year trend in the incidence and prevalence of ischemic, hemorrhagic, and overall strokes according to the severity and type of disability between people with and without disabilities. Methods: This serial cross-sectional analysis was conducted using national health information data during a 10-year period from 2008 to 2017. Age-standardized incidence and prevalence were analyzed for each year, according to the presence, severity, and type of disability. The odds ratio (OR) of stroke was examined using multivariable logistic regression after adjusting for socio-demographic and clinical variables collected in 2017. Findings: In total, 413,398,084 people were enrolled between 2008 and 2017. In 2017, 43,552,192 people aged 19 or older were included and 5.8% was disabled. For 10 years, age-standardized incidence of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke decreased significantly regardless of the presence of disability. However, age-standardized incidence of stroke in disabled were almost 2.5 times higher than the non-disabled in 2017. Stroke occurs 20 years earlier in people with disabilities than in those without disabilities. In 2017, people with disabilities had higher odds of stroke compared to those without disability (OR = 4.11, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 4.06-4.16), particularly among those with severe disabilities (OR = 4.75, 95% CI: 4.67-4.84). People with major internal organ impairment showed the highest incidence of stroke (OR = 5.95, 95% CI: 5.73-6.17). The main risk factors for stroke presented in this study were disability factors, chronic diseases, and advanced age. Interpretation: People with disabilities are at a greater risk of developing stroke incidence. Developing a public health policy and identifying the risk factors for stroke in people with disabilities would be beneficial. Funding: This work was supported by a National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Ministry of Education (No. 2022R1I1A3070074).

Synaptic scaffolding molecule binds to and regulates vasoactive intestinal polypeptide type-1 receptor in epithelial cells.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) is a principal regulator of fluid and electrolyte secretion in the gastrointestinal system. The VIP type-1 receptor (VPAC1), a class II G-protein-coupled receptor, contains a putative C-terminal PDZ-binding motif. A yeast 2-hybrid screen indicated that the C-terminus of VPAC1 bound to the PDZ domain of synaptic scaffolding molecule (S-SCAM, also known as membrane-associated guanylate kinase inverted-2 [MAGI-2]). We analyzed the association between S-SCAM and VPAC1. METHODS: The biochemical properties and physiologic significance of the interaction between VPAC1 and S-SCAM were examined in heterologous expression systems, T84 colonic epithelial cells, and human pancreas and colon tissues using an integrated molecular and physiologic approach. RESULTS: The physical interaction between VPAC1 and S-SCAM was confirmed by immunoprecipitation in HEK 293 mammalian cells and human pancreatic and colonic tissues. Immunocytochemical analysis indicated that S-SCAM recruited VPAC1 to the junctional area near the apical end of the lateral membrane in T84 cells. Several lines of evidence revealed that S-SCAM inhibits VPAC1 activation. Overexpression of S-SCAM inhibited VPAC1-mediated cAMP production and agonist-induced VPAC1 internalization in HEK 293 and HeLa cells. In addition, S-SCAM decreased the VPAC1-mediated current through the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator in Xenopus oocytes, especially at low concentrations of VIP. Importantly, loss of S-SCAM increased VIP-induced short-circuit currents in T84 monolayers, which endogenously express VPAC1 and S-SCAM. CONCLUSIONS: S-SCAM/MAGI-2 interacts with and regulates VPAC1 intracellular localization in epithelial cells and inhibits VPAC1 agonist-induced activation and internalization.

The role of translation elongation factor eEF1A in intracellular alkalinization-induced tumor cell growth.

The formation of a pH gradient, which is characterized by intracellular alkalinization and extracellular acidification, plays a key role in the growth and metastasis of tumor cells. However, the underlying mechanisms of alkalinization-induced cell growth are not known. In this study, we investigated the roles of eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 alpha (eEF1A) in alkalinization-induced cell growth. In all cell lines tested (NIH3T3, HEK293, and HeLa), cell growth was affected by the modulation of intracellular pH. In general, weak intracellular alkalinization produced increased cell growth, whereas intracellular acidification resulted in decreased cell growth. It is interesting to note that portions of actin-bound eEF1A proteins were gradually reduced from acidic to alkaline conditions, suggesting an increase in levels of functionally active, free-form eEF1A. Over-expression of eEF1A caused increased cell growth in HeLa cells. It should be noted that dissociation of eEF1A from actin by transfection with the actin-binding domain deleted eEF1A construct further increased cell growth under acidic conditions, whereas most of the intact eEF1A was bound to actin. Conversely, knockdown of eEF1A by treatment with eEF1A1 and eEF1A2 siRNAs nullified the effects of alkalinization-induced cell growth. The above findings suggest that an increase in free-form eEF1A under alkaline conditions plays a critical role in alkalinization-induced cell growth.

Correction to: Nanocarrier-Mediated Delivery of CORM-2 Enhances Anti-Allodynic and Anti-Hyperalgesic Effects of CORM-2.

The original version of this article, the name of author was incorrectely presented. That is Kyungjae Won (K. Won) should be presented as Jae Won Kyung (J.W. Kyung).

Nanocarrier-mediated Delivery of CORM-2 Enhances Anti-allodynic and Anti-hyperalgesic Effects of CORM-2.

Neuropathic pain is a devastating chronic condition and effective treatments are still lacking. Carbon monoxide-releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2) as a carbon monoxide (CO) carrier, exerts potent anti-neuropathic pain effects; however, its poor water solubility and short half-life hinder its clinical utility. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether CORM-2-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (CORM-2-SLNs) enhance the anti-allodynic and anti-hyperalgesic effects of CORM-2 in a rat chronic constriction injury (CCI) model. CORM-2-SLNs were prepared using a nanotemplate engineering technique with slight modifications. The physiochemical properties of CORM-2-SLNs were characterized and CO release from CORM-2-SLNs was assessed using a myoglobin assay. CO was slowly released from CORM-2-SLNs, was observed, and the half-life of CO release was 50 times longer than that of CORM-2. In vivo results demonstrate that intraperitoneal administration of CORM-2-SLNs (5 and 10 mg/kg/day, ip) once daily for seven consecutive days significantly reduced the mechanical allodynia and mechanical hyperalgesia compared with CORM-2 (10 mg/kg/day, ip). RT-PCR and Western blot analyses on days 7 and 14, revealed that treatment with CORM-2-SLNs resulted in greater reductions in the CCI-elevated levels of heme-oxygenase-2 (HO-2); inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS); neuronal NOS (nNOS); and inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IBA-1, and GFAP) in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglions compared with treatment with CORM-2. In contrast, HO-1 and IL-10 were significantly increased in the CORM-2-SLN-treated group compared with the group treated with CORM-2. These data indicate that CORM-2-SLNs are superior to CORM-2-S in alleviating mechanical allodynia and mechanical hyperalgesia.

Ursodeoxycholic Acid Inhibits Inflammatory Responses and Promotes Functional Recovery After Spinal Cord Injury in Rats.

The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects by ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) in rats with a spinal cord injury (SCI). A moderate mechanical compression injury was imposed on adult Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. The post-injury locomotor functions were assessed using the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor scale and the tissue volume of the injured region was analyzed using hematoxylin and eosin staining. The pro-inflammatory factors were evaluated by immunofluorescence (IF) staining, a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The phosphorylation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways related to inflammatory responses were measured by Western blot assays. UDCA improved the BBB scores and promoted the recovery of the spinal cord lesions. UDCA inhibited the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (iba1), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). UDCA decreased the pro-inflammatory cytokines of TNF-α, interleukin 1-ß (IL-1ß), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) in the mRNA and protein levels. UDCA increased the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10 (IL-10) in the mRNA and protein levels. UDCA suppressed the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and the p38 signals. UDCA reduces pro-inflammatory responses and promotes functional recovery in SCI in rats. These results suggest that UDCA is a potential therapeutic drug for SCI.

Polymorphisms of miR-146a, miR-149, miR-196a2, and miR-499 are associated with osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures in Korean postmenopausal women.

Genetic factors have been shown to be a small but significant predictor for osteoporosis and osteoporotic fracture risk. We performed a case-control association study to determine the association between miR-146a, miR-149, miR-196a2, and miR-499 polymorphisms and osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture (OVCF) susceptibility. In total, 286 unrelated postmenopausal Korean women (57 with OVCFs, 55 with non-OVCFs, and 174 healthy controls) were recruited. All subjects underwent dual energy X-ray absorptiometry to determine BMD at the lumbar spine and femoral neck. We focused on four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of pre-miRNA sequences including miR-146aC>G (rs2910164), miR-149T>C (rs2292832), miR-196a2T>C (rs11614913), and miR-499A>G (rs3746444). Genotype frequencies of these four SNPs were determined using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. The TT genotype of miR-149aT>C was less frequent in subjects with OVCFs, suggesting a protective effect against OVCF risk (Odds ratio [OR], 0.435; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.22-0.85, p = 0.014), whereas the miR-146aCG/ miR-196a2TC combined genotype was more frequent in OVCF patients (OR, 5.163; 95%CI, 1.057-25.21, p = 0.043), suggesting an increase in OVCF risk. Additionally, combinations of miR-146a, -149, -196a2, and -449 showed a significant association with increased prevalence of OVCFs in postmenopausal women. In particular, the miR-146aG/-149T/-196a2C/-449G allele combination was significantly associated with an increased risk of OVCF (OR, 35.01; 95% CI, 1.919-638.6, p = 0.001). Our findings suggest that the TT genotype of miR-149aT>C may contribute to decreased susceptibility to OVCF in Korean postmenopausal women. Conversely, the miR-146aCG/ miR-196a2TC combined genotype and the miR-146aG/-149T/-196a2C/-449G allele combination may contribute to increased susceptibility to OVCF. © 2017 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 36:244-253, 2018.

Matrix Metalloproteinase-8 Inhibition Prevents Disruption of Blood-Spinal Cord Barrier and Attenuates Inflammation in Rat Model of Spinal Cord Injury.

After spinal cord injury (SCI), tight junction (TJ) protein degradation increases permeability and disrupts the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB). The BSCB is primarily formed of endothelial cell, which forms a specialized tight seal due to the presence of TJs. BSCB disruption after SCI allows neutrophil infiltration. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-8 is believed to be mainly expressed by neutrophils and is quickly released upon neutrophil activation. Here, we determined whether MMP-8 is involved in the TJ protein degradation in endothelial cells and also determined its role in the neuroinflammation after SCI. MMP-8 recombinant protein treatment increases the TNF-α expression and decreased the TJ (occludin and zonula occludens-1) protein expression in the endothelial cells. Likewise, specific MMP-8 inhibitor (MMP-8I) significantly prevented the TNF-α-induced decrease in the expression of TJ protein in endothelial cells. Furthermore, MMP-8 expression was significantly increased 1 and 3 days after moderate compression (35 g for 5 min at T10 level) SCI, whereas TJ protein levels decreased as determined qRT-PCR, western blotting, and immunohistochemistry. MMP-8 was inhibited directly using a MMP-8I (5 mg/kg) and indirectly by reducing neutrophil infiltration with sivelestat sodium (50 mg/kg) or using the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (100 mg/kg). The MMP-8I significantly decreased TNF-α expression, IL-6, and iNOS expression and increased TJ protein expression after SCI. In addition, MMP-8I significantly lessens the amount of Evans blue dye extravasation observed after injury. Thus, our result suggests that MMP-8 plays an imperative role in inflammation and degradation of TJ proteins. Increased MMP-8 expression was associated with the early inflammatory phase of SCI. Inhibiting MMP-8 significantly attenuated SCI-induced inflammation, BSCB breakdown, and cell injury.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Tauroursodeoxycholic acid in RAW 264.7 macrophages, Bone marrow-derived macrophages, BV2 microglial cells, and spinal cord injury.

This study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) after spinal cord injury (SCI) in rats. We induced an inflammatory process in RAW 264.7 macrophages, BV2 microglial cells, and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMM) using lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The anti-inflammatory effects of TUDCA on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages, BV2 microglial cells, and BMMs were analyzed using nitric oxide (NO) assays, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reactions (qRT-PCR), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). The pathological changes in lesions of the spinal cord tissue were evaluated by hematoxylin & eosin (H&E) staining, luxol fast blue/cresyl violet-staining and immunofluorescent staining. TUDCA decreased the LPS-stimulated inflammatory mediator, NO. It also suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 1-ß (IL-1ß), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in both mRNA and protein levels. In addition, TUDCA decreased prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). After SCI, TUDCA supported the recovery of the injury site and suppressed the expression of inflammatory cytokines such as iNOS, CD68 and CD86. In addition, TUDCA induced the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine, Arg-1. In conclusion, TUDCA inhibits inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 macrophages, BV2 microglial cells, and BMMs. TUDCA can be a potential alternative drug for SCI.

Corrigendum: Oral Administration of α-Asarone Promotes Functional Recovery in Rats With Spinal Cord Injury.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00445.].

Neutrophil elastase inhibition effectively rescued angiopoietin-1 decrease and inhibits glial scar after spinal cord injury.

After spinal cord injury (SCI), neutrophil elastase (NE) released at injury site disrupts vascular endothelium integrity and stabilization. Angiopoietins (ANGPTs) are vascular growth factors that play an important role in vascular stabilization. We hypothesized that neutrophil elastase is one of the key determinants of vascular endothelium disruption/destabilization and affects angiopoietins expression after spinal cord injury. To test this, tubule formation and angiopoietins expression were assessed in endothelial cells exposed to different concentrations of recombinant neutropil elastase. Then, the expression of angiopoietin-1, angiopoietin-2, and neutrophil elastase was determined at 3 h and at 1, 3, 5, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days in a clinically relevant model of moderate compression (35 g for 5 min at T10) spinal cord injury. A dichotomy between the levels of angiopoietin-1 and angiopoietin-2 was observed; thus, we utilized a specific neutrophil elastase inhibitor (sivelestat sodium; 30 mg/kg, i.p., b.i.d.) after spinal cord injury. The expression levels of neutropil elastase and angiopoietin-2 increased, and that of angiopoietin-1 decreased after spinal cord injury in rats. The sivelestat regimen, optimized via a pharmacokinetics study, had potent effects on vascular stabilization by upregulating angiopoietin-1 via the AKT pathway and preventing tight junction protein degradation. Moreover, sivelestat attenuated the levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines after spinal cord injury and hence subsequently alleviated secondary damage observed as a reduction in glial scar formation and the promotion of blood vessel formation and stabilization. As a result, hindlimb locomotor function significantly recovered in the sivelestat-treated animals as determined by the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan scale and footprint analyses. Furthermore, sivelestat treatment attenuated neuropathic pain as assessed by responses to von Frey filaments after spinal cord injury. Thus, our result suggests that inhibiting neutropil elastase by administration of sivelestat is a promising therapeutic strategy to inhibit glial scar and promote functional recovery by upregulating angiopoietin-1 after spinal cord injury.

Oral Administration of α-Asarone Promotes Functional Recovery in Rats With Spinal Cord Injury.

α-asarone, a bioactive compound found in Acorus plant species, has been shown to exhibit neuroprotective, anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and cognitive-enhancing effects. However, the effects of α-asarone on spinal cord injury (SCI) have not yet been elucidated. The present study investigated the effects of α-asarone on the mRNA of pro-inflammatory cytokines, macrophage polarization toward an anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype, and angiogenesis in rats with compressive SCI. α-Asarone was orally administered (10 mg/kg) once per day for 14 days following moderate static compression SCI. Compared to controls, α-asarone treatment significantly improved locomotor score, prevented neuroinflammation, and facilitated angiogenesis in the spinal cord at 14 days after SCI. Furthermore, α-asarone significantly reduced the TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP-2), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) levels but increased the IL-4, IL-10, and arginase 1 levels at 24 h after SCI. At 7 and 14 days after SCI, immunohistochemistry showed reduced reactive gliosis and neuroinflammation and an increased expression of M2 macrophage markers and angiogenesis. The results suggest that the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines, macrophage polarization toward an anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype, and angiogenesis by α-asarone may be some of the mechanisms underlying the α-asarone-mediated neuroprotective effects on an injured spinal cord.

Anti-inflammatory effects of ursodeoxycholic acid by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. METHODS: We induced an inflammatory process in RAW 264.7 macrophages using LPS. The anti-inflammatory effects of UDCA on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages were analyzed using nitric oxide (NO). Pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines were analyzed by quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The phosphorylations of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways and nuclear factor kappa-light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor, alpha (IκBα) signaling pathways were evaluated by western blot assays. RESULTS: UDCA decreased the LPS-stimulated release of the inflammatory mediator NO. UDCA also decreased the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 1-α (IL-1α), interleukin 1-ß (IL-1ß), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) in mRNA and protein levels. In addition, UDCA increased an anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10 (IL-10) in the LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. UDCA inhibited the expression of inflammatory transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, UDCA suppressed the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38 signals related to inflammatory pathways. In addition, the phosphorylation of IκBα, the inhibitor of NF-κB, also inhibited by UDCA. CONCLUSION: UDCA inhibits the pro-inflammatory responses by LPS in RAW 264.7 macrophages. UDCA also suppresses the phosphorylation by LPS on ERK, JNK, and p38 in MAPKs and NF-κB pathway. These results suggest that UDCA can serve as a useful anti-inflammatory drug.

Shank2 associates with and regulates Na+/H+ exchanger 3.

Na+/H+ exchanger 3 (NHE3) plays a pivotal role in transepithelial Na+ and HCO3(-) absorption across a wide range of epithelia in the digestive and renal-genitourinary systems. Accumulating evidence suggests that PDZ-based adaptor proteins play an important role in regulating the trafficking and activity of NHE3. A search for NHE3-binding modular proteins using yeast two-hybrid assays led us to the PDZ-based adaptor Shank2. The interaction between Shank2 and NHE3 was further confirmed by immunoprecipitation and surface plasmon resonance studies. When expressed in PS120/NHE3 cells, Shank2 increased the membrane expression and basal activity of NHE3 and attenuated the cAMP-dependent inhibition of NHE3 activity. Furthermore, knock-down of native Shank2 expression in Caco-2 epithelial cells by RNA interference decreased NHE3 protein expression as well as activity but amplified the inhibitory effect of cAMP on NHE3. These results indicate that Shank2 is a novel NHE3 interacting protein that is involved in the fine regulation of transepithelial salt and water transport through affecting NHE3 expression and activity.