Occurrence of short- and ultra-short chain PFAS in drinking water from Flanders (Belgium) and implications for human exposure.

SHORT: and ultra-short chain perfluoroalkyl substances (S- and US-PFAS) are alternatives for the long-chain PFAS which have been more regulated over time. They are highly mobile in the environment and can easily reach drinking water sources which can become an important human exposure route. Furthermore, there have been growing concerns about the presence of PFAS in Flanders. Because of this, human exposure to S- and US-PFAS through Flemish drinking water was evaluated in this study. For this purpose, the presence of 2 S-PFAS (PFBS and PFBA) and 5 US-PFAS (PFPrS, PFEtS, TFMS, PFPrA and TFA) was investigated in 47 tap water samples, collected from different Flemish provinces, and 16 bottled waters purchased in Flanders. Out of the 7 target PFAS, 4 (PFBA, PFBS, PFPrS and PFEtS) were detected at concentrations above LOQ in tap water. In bottled water, only TFMS was present above its LOQ. PFAS concentrations in all analyzed water samples ranged from <0.7 to 7.3 ng/L for PFBS, <0.03-15.0 ng/L for TFMS and <0.9-12.0 ng/L for PFBA. PFPrS was only detected once above its LOQ, at 0.6 ng/L. No value could be reported for PFPrA due to high procedural blanks resulting in a high LOQ, nor for TFA due to high matrix effect. No significant differences in PFAS concentrations were seen in tap water among different drinking water companies, provinces, nor between the two types of analyzed bottled water (natural mineral water vs spring water). The use of a commercial carbon filter significantly reduced the median concentrations of the studied compounds in tap water. Finally, it was estimated that the presence of S- and US-PFAS in Flemish drinking water does not pose an immediate threat to human health, as concentrations were at least two orders of magnitude below the available guidance values.

Assessing health risks in bottled water: chemical compounds and their impact on human health.

Bottled mineral and spring water constitute one of the main sources of drinking water. Relevant legal acts in each country individually regulate the highest permitted concentrations of harmful substances in these waters. However, current regulations do not take into account newly emerging contaminants such as BPA. Analysis of the chemical composition of 72 bottled waters from the Polish market showed that undesirable elements occur in quantities that do not exceed the maximum permissible concentrations. Special attention should be paid to bottled therapeutic water, which may contain elevated concentrations of some micronutrients, such as Al, B, Ba, Fe, Mn, or Sr contributing to the pattern of health risk with excessive consumption of this type of water. The presence of BPA was confirmed in 25 tested waters. The calculated hazard index values showed that the most exposed group are children up to 12 years of age. The greatest attention should be paid to waters with high mineralisation, for which the calculated risk values are the highest.

Estimated exposure to microplastics through national and local brands of bottled water in Central India.

Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous pollutants that affect various environmental matrices, including air, water, soil, food, and beverages. In India, there is limited research on microplastics in bottled drinking water, which is a significant route of MP exposure to the human body. To date, the data on the occurrence of MPs in national and local bottled water brands have not been studied and compared. Therefore, the current study focuses on the contamination of MPs in bottled water from different national and local brands procured from the market of Nagpur, India. The MPs were observed in all the analyzed samples. It was observed that the local bottled water showed higher MP contamination compared to national bottled water, with MP concentrations of 212 ± 100 MPs/L and 72 ± 36 MPs/L, respectively. The MPs were identified and characterized using microscopic and attenuated total reflectance-fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) analysis, revealing that the dominant MP particles were fragments (71%), followed by fibers (23%), and others (6%). Among the observed particles, 50% of particles were black colored, followed by transparent (16%), red (13%), orange (8%), green (3%), blue (5%), and yellow (5%). The predominant polymer types were polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Overall, the pollution load indices suggested a moderate level of contamination in bottled water samples. Furthermore, the estimated annual human exposure to MPs was calculated as 5186 ± 3751 p/kg-bw/year for children and 1482 ± 1072 p/kg-bw/year for adults, making it a significant route of human exposure to MPs.

Potential risk of dental fluorosis associated with different baby formulas and water brands marketed in Spain.

Despite efforts to promote breastfeeding, many babies aged <6 months receive only baby formula reconstituted with bottled water. The intake of high levels of fluoride during amelogenesis has been associated with hypomineralization of the tooth enamel, with aesthetic and mechanical repercussions. The objective of this study was to determine the potential risk of dental fluorosis associated with baby formulas marketed in Spain. We measured 26 baby formulas frequently consumed in Spain; 17 brands for babies aged <6 months, 5 for those aged >6 months, and 4 ready-to-use brands. They were prepared with 4 types of water: distilled water and three brands of bottled water with different levels of fluoride. The fluoride concentration (mg/L or ppm F) was measured with an ion-specific electrode coupled to an ion analyzer. Each sample was prepared according to the manufacturer's instructions and analyzed in triplicate. A descriptive analysis was carried out. The minimum fluoride level found was 0.04 mg/L and the maximum was 1.02 mg/L. Considering the daily intake of these formulas, none exceeded the clinically-acceptable daily dose limit risk for fluorosis (0.07 mg F/day/kg body weight) when mixed with bottled water with a low level of fluoride (0.1 mg/L). However, when the same brands of formula were reconstituted with bottled water with a higher fluoride content (0.99 mg/L), they all exceeded the daily dose limit for the risk of fluorosis. As the potential risk of dental fluorosis associated with the formulas tested depends exclusively on the fluoride concentration of the waters used for reconstitution, formula packaging should contain a warning.

Water Insecurity Indicators Are Associated with Lower Diet and Beverage Quality in a National Survey of Lower-Income United States Adults.

BACKGROUND: Tap water distrust and avoidance, indicators of water insecurity, are prevalent in marginalized United States populations. As future environmental challenges stress water resources, further understanding of the scope of water insecurity and its impact on diet quality is needed, particularly in vulnerable United States populations. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate associations between 3 potential indicators of water insecurity-1) perception of tap water safety for drinking, 2) perception of tap water safety for cooking, and 3) tap water avoidance-and dietary quality and beverage intake in lower-income United States adults. METHODS: A cross-sectional, web-based survey was fielded to 1798 lower-income (<250% federal poverty guidelines) United States adults. Participants answered questions detailing tap water safety perceptions and avoidance, beverage intake, dietary intake (30-d prime diet quality score), and sociodemographic covariates. Sociodemographic differences in drinking water insecurity measures were evaluated using chi-square and Fisher-Freeman-Halton tests. Associations between water insecurity measures and dietary outcomes were assessed using generalized linear models adjusted for sociodemographic covariates, and effect modification by sociodemographic covariates was assessed. RESULTS: Over half of the adults surveyed experienced some aspect of water insecurity. Measures of water security differed significantly by sociodemographic covariates (Ps < 0.05), with higher percentages of women and gender-nonconforming persons, minoritized racial and ethnic groups, lower-income groups, and food-insecure adults reporting indicators of water insecurity. Presence of any water insecurity was associated with lower diet quality (ß = -1.07; 95% CI: -2.11, -0.03; P = 0.04), lower tap water intake (relative difference [RD] = 0.35; 95% CI: 1.28, 2.12; P < 0.0001), higher bottled water intake (RD = 1.64; 95% CI: 1.28, 2.12; P = 0.0001), and higher sugar-sweetened beverages intake frequency (frequency ratio = 1.13; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.27; P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Water insecurity indicators are associated with poorer diet quality and beverage intake in a population of United States adults with lower-incomes. Addressing the intersection of water insecurity, food security, environmental impacts, and nutrition may help to improve the well-being and resiliency of vulnerable populations.

Tap water perceptions and water filter use vary with socio-demographic characteristics and are associated with water and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in university students.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study is to evaluate university students' perceptions of tap water safety and water filter use and determine how these perceptions and behaviours affect water and sugar-sweetened beverage intake. DESIGN: Cross-sectional; online survey conducted in Fall 2021. SETTING: A large, public Midwestern university in the USA. PARTICIPANTS: Seven-hundred ninety-three university students. RESULTS: Students who experienced food insecurity, were on a Pell grant, were first-generation college students or were racial/ethnic minorities were less likely to trust tap water safety. Tap water filtration behaviour also varied by age and race/ethnicity. Students who did not agree with the statement 'my local tap water is safe to drink' had lower odds of consuming ≥ 3 cups of total water per day (OR = 0·45, 95 % CI: 0·32, 0·62), lower odds of consuming tap water ≥ 3 times/d (OR = 0·46, 95 % CI: 0·34, 0·64), higher odds of drinking bottled water ≥ 1 time per day (OR = 1·80, 95 % CI: 1·22, 2·66) and higher odds of drinking SSB ≥ 1 time per day (OR = 1·47, 95 % CI: 1·01, 2·14) than those who agreed. Students who always or sometimes filtered their tap water had lower odds of consuming ≥ 3 cups of total water per day (OR = 0·59, 95 % CI: 0·39, 0·90) than students who never filtered their tap water. CONCLUSIONS: Tap water perceptions and behaviours affect tap and bottled water and SSB intake among university students. Tap water perceptions and behaviours in this demographic provide important context for university programming promoting healthy beverage initiatives.

Using Water Intake Dietary Recall Data to Provide a Window into US Water Insecurity.

BACKGROUND: In the United States, problems with the provision of safe, affordable water have resulted in an increasing number of adults who avoid their tap water, which could indicate underlying water insecurity. Dietary recalls provide critical nutritional surveillance data, yet have been underexplored as a water insecurity monitoring tool. OBJECTIVES: This article aims to demonstrate how water intake variables from dietary recall data relate to and predict a key water insecurity proxy, that is, tap water avoidance. METHODS: Using 2005-2018 NHANES data from 32,329 adults, I examine distributions and trends of mean intakes of total, plain (sum of tap and bottled water), tap, and bottled water, and percentage consuming no tap and exclusive bottled water. Second, I use multiple linear and logistic regressions to test how tap water avoidance relates to plain water intake and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption. Next, I use receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves to test the predictive accuracy of no plain water, no tap, and exclusive bottled water intake, and varying percentages of plain water consumed from tap water compared with tap water avoidance. RESULTS: Trends indicate increasing plain water intake between 2005 and 2018, driven by increasing bottled water intake. In 2017-18, 51.4% of adults did not drink tap water on a given day, whereas 35.8% exclusively consumed bottled water. Adults who avoided their tap water consumed less tap and plain water, and significantly more bottled water and SSBs on a given day. No tap intake and categories of tap water intake produced 77% and 78% areas under the ROC curve in predicting tap water avoidance. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that water intake variables from dietary recalls can be used to accurately predict tap water avoidance and provide a window into water insecurity. Growing reliance on bottled water could indicate increasing concerns about tap water.

Examining recent trends in the racial disparity gap in tap water consumption: NHANES 2011-2018.

OBJECTIVE: As tap water distrust has grown in the USA with greater levels among Black and Hispanic households, we aimed to examine recent trends in not drinking tap water including the period covering the US Flint Water Crisis and racial/ethnic disparities in these trends. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis. We used log-binomial regressions and marginal predicted probabilities to examine US nationally representative trends in tap and bottled water consumption overall and by race/ethnicity. SETTING: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data, 2011-2018. PARTICIPANTS: Nationally representative sample of 9439 children aged 2-19 years and 17 268 adults. RESULTS: Among US children and adults, respectively, in 2017-2018 there was a 63 % (adjusted prevalence ratio (PR): 1·63, 95 % CI (1·25, 2·12), P < 0·001)) and 40 % (PR: 1·40, 95 % CI (1·16, 1·69), P = 0·001)) higher prevalence of not drinking tap water compared to 2013-2014 (pre-Flint Water Crisis). For Black children and adults, the probability of not drinking tap water increased significantly from 18·1 % (95 % CI (13·4, 22·8)) and 24·6 % (95 % CI (20·7, 28·4)) in 2013-2014 to 29·3 % (95 % CI (23·5, 35·1)) and 34·5 % (95 % CI (29·4, 39·6)) in 2017-2018. Among Hispanic children and adults, not drinking tap water increased significantly from 24·5 % (95 % CI (19·4, 29·6)) and 27·1 % (95 % CI (23·0, 31·2)) in 2013-2014 to 39·7 % (95 % CI (32·7, 46·8)) and 38·1 % (95 % CI (33·0, 43·1)) in 2017-2018. No significant increases were observed among Asian or White persons between 2013-2014 and 2017-2018. Similar trends were found in bottled water consumption. CONCLUSIONS: This study found persistent disparities in the tap water consumption gap from 2011 to 2018. Black and Hispanics' probability of not drinking tap water increased following the Flint Water Crisis.

Risk perceptions of drinking bottled vs. tap water in a low-income community on the US-Mexico Border.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that low-income Latinos generally drink bottled water over tap water and might be at increased risks for cavities from unfluoridated bottled water. In order to better design interventions, it is important to understand the risk perceptions of this unique high-risk yet historically marginalized group. METHODS: We interviewed low-income Latino households (n = 90) from Nogales, Arizona who primarily drink bottled water and asked them to evaluate potential health risks of drinking tap water compared to 16 other voluntary activities. Unpaired t-tests were used to determine if statistically significant (α = 0.05) differences occurred in perceived risk by drinking-water source and differences among demographic groups in their level of (dis)agreement with statements regarding tap or bottled water safety. To assess significant differences (α = 0.05) in perceived risks and voluntariness to engage in a number of activities, including drinking local tap water and drinking water in different geographic regions, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Scheffe's post-hoc test (a conservative post-hoc test) with adjustment for the number of pairwise comparisons was used. RESULTS: Participants viewed bottled water to be significantly safer to consume than tap water (p < 0.001). On a Likert scale from 1 (low risk) to 5 (high risk), "drinking tap water in Nogales, Arizona" received an average score of 4.7, which was significantly higher than the average perceived risk of drinking San Francisco, California tap water (µ = 3.4, p < 0.001), and as risky as drinking and driving (µ = 4.8, p = 1.00) and drinking Nogales, Sonora, Mexico tap water (µ = 4.8, p = 1.00). Ninety-eight percent of participants feared that drinking local tap water could result in illness, 79% did not drink their water because of fear of microbial and chemical contamination and 73% would drink their water if they knew it was safe regardless of taste. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that fear of illness from tap-water consumption is an important contributing factor to increased bottled water use. Future efforts should focus on the development of educational and outreach efforts to assess the safety and risks associated with tap-water consumption.

Physiological, biochemical, and hormonal changes in rats exposed to bottled water left in a hot car and the freezer.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of bottled water left in the car and those left in the refrigerator on the physiological and biochemical parameters of male rats. Eighteen male albino rats were randomly divided into control, warmed bottled water (WBW), and cooled bottled water (CBW) groups. The concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA) and antimony (Sb) in the water samples were measured. Results showed that the levels of BPA and Sb were higher in bottled water left in the car and those kept at room temperature (control), relative to the bottled water samples kept in the fridge. Bodyweight, some metabolic indicators, cTnT and CRP levels, hematological parameters, testosterone level, and sperm quality were significantly affected by storage conditions. These results indicate that storage conditions can potentially affect the quality of bottled water, which in turn can affect the biological parameters of living organisms. Moreover, since the concentrations of BPA and Sb were least in bottled water kept in the refrigerator, we recommend that manufacturers and households should endeavor to keep bottled water under cold storage.

Bottled water quality assessment through entropy-weighted water quality index (EWQI) and pollution index of groundwater (PIG): a case study in a fast-growing metropolitan area in Türkiye.

The aim of the study is to evaluate the quality of water collected during wet and dry seasons of Sanliurfa and to expand and improve understanding of the pollution status and drinking quality of bottled water used for drinking purposes. To do so, an entropy-weighted water quality index (EWQI) and a groundwater pollution index (PIG) were used to evaluate data on physicochemical parameters related to drinking water quality standards. The parameters related to bottled water quality were evaluated with Piper and Ternary diagrams. The calculated EWQI values ranged from 7.78 to 29.74 in wet season whereas 11.63 to 32.20 in dry season. Overall, EWQI data showed that all of water samples were suitable for drinking. Similarly, the values of PIG varied from 0.09 to 0.3 in wet season but 0.1 to 0.26 in dry season, which also showed that all water samples from the study area were suitable.

A high level of antibiotic resistance in Klebsiella and Aeromonas isolates from street water sold in Mozambique, associated with the prevalence of extended-spectrum and AmpC ß-lactamases.

This study aims to evaluate the resistance profile and the prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes in 30 isolates of Klebsiella spp. and Aeromonas spp. recovered from water sold in the streets of Maputo. Susceptibility profiles to 15 antibiotics were performed according to Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute guidelines with antibiotic disks on Mueller-Hinton agar plates. Multiplex PCRs were performed targeting 10 ß-lactamase genes, five ESBL (blaTEM-variants, blaOXA-variants, BlaSHV-variants, MCTX-M Group 1 and Group 9 variants) and five AmpC (ACC variants, FOX variants, MOX variants, CIT variants and DHA variants). The results showed a high prevalence of Klebsiella resistance to ß-lactam antibiotics, such as amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (62.5%), amoxicillin (56.3%), ampicillin (50%), cefoxitin (43.8%), and cefotaxime (43.8%). Aeromonas showed resistance to cefoxitin and ampicillin (71.4%), amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (57.1%) and imipenem (42.9%). ESBL blaOXA-variants, blaSVH-variants, MCTX-M Group 1 variants, and MCTX-M Group 9 variants were the most prevalent b-lactam genes, followed by the b-lactams AmpC, ACC variants and FOX variants. It is extremely important to improve waterborne disease control strategies, especially in terms of public awareness of the potential health implications of multidrug-resistant strains of Klebsiella and Aeromonas, which are often neglected.

Investigating the pollution of bottled water by the microplastics (MPs): the effects of mechanical stress, sunlight exposure, and freezing on MPs release.

Bottled water is becoming more popular worldwide and possible contamination's need to be analyzed. Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants and have recently been regarded as an important contaminant in bottled water due to oral intake and possible threats to human health. In the present study, MP amounts in 23 popular Iranian brands of bottled water were determined by filtration and counting under scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The effects of mechanical stress, environmental factors, and freezing on MP release also were investigated. The average amounts of MPs in water samples were 1496.7 ± 1452.2 particles/L (199.8 to 6626.7 particles/L). The amounts of MPs in different brands was significantly different (p < 0.05). As much as 91.3% of detected particles had the size between 1 and 10 µm. The most likely polymers determined by FTIR spectroscopy was polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The freezing of water in the bottles did not show any significant effect on the MPs release, but mechanical stress to the bottles increased MP amounts in the water significantly. Environmental factors including sunlight exposure and the age of bottles showed the most degradative effects on the structure of polymers in the body of PET bottles and release of MPs. Regardless of their type, source and commercial brands, bottled water is contaminated with hundreds to thousands MPs/L. The main portion (above 90%) of these MPs are < 5 µm particles with considerable effects on human health.

Migration of Plasticizers from Polyethylene Terephthalate and Low-Density Polyethylene Casing into Bottled Water: A Case Study From India.

Mineral bottled water packed in three polymers viz., virgin polyethylene terephthalate (PET), recycled PET, and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) were investigated for the occurrence, migration, and health risk of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) at 25 °C, 35 °C, and 45 °C. The average concentration of six USEPA priority PAEs in refrigerated water samples was highest in recycled PET> LDPE > virgin PET. The highest leaching was seen at 45 °C after 2 days for LDPE water packets with ∑6PAEs amounting to 64,300 ng/L. Similarly, for recycled PET, the highest migration was seen at 45 °C after seven days (3,800 µg/L). Bis 2-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) were the predominant plasticizers from PET bottles and LDPE water packets, respectively. Predicted concentration after three weeks based on best fit obtained through the polynomial model for PET bottles was seen higher than the recommended limit suggested by USEPA (6 µg/L) and WHO (8 µg/L).

Analysis of microplastics in drinking water and other clean water samples with micro-Raman and micro-infrared spectroscopy: minimum requirements and best practice guidelines.

Microplastics are a widespread contaminant found not only in various natural habitats but also in drinking waters. With spectroscopic methods, the polymer type, number, size, and size distribution as well as the shape of microplastic particles in waters can be determined, which is of great relevance to toxicological studies. Methods used in studies so far show a huge diversity regarding experimental setups and often a lack of certain quality assurance aspects. To overcome these problems, this critical review and consensus paper of 12 European analytical laboratories and institutions, dealing with microplastic particle identification and quantification with spectroscopic methods, gives guidance toward harmonized microplastic particle analysis in clean waters. The aims of this paper are to (i) improve the reliability of microplastic analysis, (ii) facilitate and improve the planning of sample preparation and microplastic detection, and (iii) provide a better understanding regarding the evaluation of already existing studies. With these aims, we hope to make an important step toward harmonization of microplastic particle analysis in clean water samples and, thus, allow the comparability of results obtained in different studies by using similar or harmonized methods. Clean water samples, for the purpose of this paper, are considered to comprise all water samples with low matrix content, in particular drinking, tap, and bottled water, but also other water types such as clean freshwater.

The occurrence and dietary intake related to the presence of microplastics in drinking water in Saudi Arabia.

The implications and health effects of microplastics (MPs) ingestion are still unclear, yet researchers and organizations around the world are increasingly examining the levels of microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment. This study investigated the presence and the quantity of microplastics in bottled and tap water from five regions in Saudi Arabia and estimated the dietary intake of microplastics. Thirty samples of drinking water were collected from the retail markets in Saudi Arabia. The samples included plastic bottled drinking water, 2 glass bottles, and 2 samples of tap water to represent ground water and desalinated seawater. Sample preparation in the laboratory involved a vacuum-assisted filtration with an inorganic filter membrane (0.2-µm pore size). Identification and classification of microplastics particles using Fourier-transform infrared microspectroscopy (FTIR microspectroscopy). The particle size range screened for in this study was 25-500 µm. Microplastics were identified in 17 out of 30 samples. The average of the detected microplastic particles was 1.9 pcs/L (lower bound estimate, LB) and 4.7 pcs/L (upper bound estimate, UB), respectively. The most frequently identified plastic type was polyethylene (PE), followed by polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Given an average recommended water intake of 3.7 and 2.7 L per day for men and women, respectively, the corresponding daily exposure to microplastics would result in 0.1-0.2 pcs/kg bw. The estimate for high water consumers increases to a daily exposure of 1.7-1.9 pcs/kg bw based on the recommended intake for water in hot weather by the WHO. From these results, we conclude that the level of dietary intake of microplastics from drinking water in Saudi Arabia is low, and according to current state of knowledge, microplastics from drinking water do not pose any concern to the consumers in Saudi Arabia.

Heavy metal concentrations in rivers and drinking water of Esmeraldas (Ecuador) under an intermittent water supply service.

Universal access to safe water is a major global goal, but these efforts could be at stake because drinking water sources are becoming polluted in many developing countries. Chlorine, major ions, and heavy metals were measured in rivers and drinking water of Esmeraldas because potential pollution sources raise concerns about the quality of the water supply, and because users have developed strategies to cope with water shortages including collecting river water and water distributed by tankers, storing water at home, and consuming commercial bottled water. We sampled water from the water distribution system (WDS) and the Esmeraldas and Teaone rivers including the intake to the potabilization plant, water distributed by tankers, and commercial bottled water. Most of the samples collected from the Esmeraldas and Teaone rivers, the WDS, and tankers complied with drinking water standards, but higher concentration of cadmium and other metals in the eastern part of the city is an indication of corrosion inside the WDS. Commercial bottled and WDS water showed similar heavy metal concentrations, but regular consumption of some brands may lead to higher exposure to arsenic and mineral deficiencies. Chlorine concentrations in the water supplied by the WDS were below the values required for safe disinfection, and in-house chlorination is uncommon in the city. Strengthening pollution control in the Esmeraldas river, monitoring corrosion of the WDS, and promoting point-use chlorination and better water handling practices are required to secure a safer water supply in the long term.

Medicaid expansion and non-alcoholic beverage choices by low-income households.

This article investigates the impact of the 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) on the healthfulness of non-alcoholic beverage (NAB) choices of low-income households. A theoretical analysis proposes an income effect that increases unhealthy beverage purchases after Medicaid expansion and a nutrition education effect that decreases them. To empirically test these effects, we utilize household-level data for NAB purchases in 52 U.S. metropolitan areas. Our identification strategy is based on eligible households following the 2012 Supreme Court ruling that allowed states to opt out of Medicaid expansion. We examine changes in purchases across NAB categories and in purchases at the product-brand level. Empirical results indicate that Medicaid expansion resulted in eligible households buying more diet carbonated soft drinks (CSDs) and bottled water, with no effect on regular CSDs, fruit juice, fruit drinks, milk, or tea. Moreover, the expansion led to decreases in sugar purchases and increases in purchases of NAB products with lower sugar content, highlighting the benefits of supplementing the medical benefits of Medicaid with diet quality programs, such as nutrition education.

A comparative study of microbial contamination between public institutional and private residential bottled water dispensers.

Bottled water as well as bottled water dispensers is widely used in the United Arab Emirates as a source of drinking water in residential, commercial, and institutional settings. The quality of such waters is of utmost concern as it has the potential to cause waterborne outbreaks, if (re)contaminated. Besides, bottled water dispensers could act as a source of contamination over time, if not cleaned properly on a regular basis. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 40 water samples collected from public and private bottled water dispensers in the emirates of Dubai and Sharjah. Samples were analyzed for heterotrophic plate count bacteria, fecal and total coliforms, and fungal growth. No total and fecal coliforms were detected in any of the samples. Heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) ranged between 0 and 100 CFU/100 ml, with an overall average of 31 CFU/100 ml. There was no significant difference between the HPC bacterial levels of public and private bottled water dispensers. However, a significant association (p < 0.05) was found between fungal growth and the location of the bottled water dispenser within the investigated sites. Survey outcomes also highlighted the need to spread awareness and knowledge amongst general public on basic cleanliness and hygiene practices contributing to safe drinking water and the need for stricter monitoring of public bottled water dispensers cleaning schedules.

Traceability of different brands of bottled mineral water during shelf life, using PCR-DGGE and next generation sequencing techniques.

Natural mineral waters contain indigenous bacteria characteristic of each spring source. Once bottled, these communities change over time until the water is consumed. Bottle material is believed to play a major role in the succession of these populations, but very few studies to date have evaluated the effect of this material on bacterial communities. In this study, we examined the microbial community structure of three natural mineral waters over 3 months after bottling in glass and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles. To this end, we used culture-dependent (heterotrophic plate count) and culture-independent methods (16S rRNA massive gene sequencing, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and fluorescent microscopy with vital dyes). Total and viable cell counts increased by around 1-2 log10 units between 1 and 2 weeks after bottling and then remained constant over 3 months for all waters regardless of the bottle material. DGGE fingerprints and 16S rRNA massive sequencing analysis both indicated that different communities were established in the waters two weeks after bottling in the different bottle materials. In conclusion, no differences in total, viable and culturable bacteria counts were observed between mineral waters bottled with PET or glass during shelf life storage. Nevertheless, in spite of changes in the communities, each water brand and material presented a distinct microbial community structure clearly distinguishable from the others, which could be interesting for traceability purposes.