Complement activation in wasp venom-induced acute kidney injury.

Previous studies have highlighted the significant role of complement activation in kidney injuries induced by rhabdomyolysis, intravascular hemolysis, sepsis, and ischemia-reperfusion. Nevertheless, the specific role and mechanism of complement activation in acute kidney injury (AKI) caused by wasp venom remain unclear. The aim of this study was to elucidate the specific complement pathway activated and investigate complement activation in AKI induced by wasp venom. In this study, a complement-depleted mouse model was used to investigate the role of complement in wasp venom-induced AKI. Mice were randomly categorized into control, cobra venom factor (CVF), AKI, and CVF + AKI groups. Compared to the AKI group, the CVF + AKI group showed improved pathological changes in kidneys and reduced blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels. The expression levels of renal complement 3 (C3), complement 5 (C5), complement 1q (C1q), factor B (FB), mannose-binding lectin (MBL), and C5b-9 in AKI group were upregulated compared with the control group. Conversely, the renal tissue expression levels of C3, C5, C1q, FB, MBL, and C5b-9 were decreased in the CVF + AKI group compared to those in the AKI group. Complement activation occurs through all three pathways in AKI induced by wasp venom. Furthermore, complement depletion by CVF attenuates wasp venom-induced nephrotoxicity, suggesting that complement activation plays a primary role in the pathogenesis of wasp venom-induced AKI.

STING deficiency protects against wasp venom-induced acute kidney injury.

OBJECTIVE: Recent evidence suggests a key role of the inflammatory responses in wasp venom-induced acute kidney injury (AKI). However, the potential regulatory mechanisms underlying the inflammatory responses in wasp venom-induced AKI remain unclear. STING reportedly plays a critical role in other AKI types and is associated with inflammatory responses and diseases. We aimed to investigate the involvement of STING in inflammatory responses associated with wasp venom-induced AKI. METHODS: The role of the STING signaling pathway in wasp venom-induced AKI was studied in vivo using a mouse model of wasp venom-induced AKI with STING knockout or pharmacological inhibition and in vitro using human HK2 cells with STING knockdown. RESULTS: STING deficiency or pharmacological inhibition markedly ameliorated renal dysfunction, inflammatory responses, necroptosis, and apoptosis in wasp venom-induced AKI in mice. Moreover, STING knockdown in cultured HK2 cells attenuated the inflammatory response, necroptosis, and apoptosis induced by myoglobin, the major pathogenic factor in wasp venom-induced AKI. Urinary mitochondrial DNA upregulation has also been observed in patients with wasp venom-induced AKI. CONCLUSIONS: STING activation mediates the inflammatory response in wasp venom-induced AKI. This may offer a potential therapeutic target for the management of wasp venom-induced AKI.

Wasp venom-induced acute kidney injury: current progress and prospects.

Wasp venom can trigger local and systemic reactions, with the kidneys being commonly affected, potentially causing acute kidney injury (AKI). Despite of the recent advances, our knowledge on the underlying mechanisms of toxicity and targeted therapies remain poor. AKI can result from direct nephrotoxic effects of the wasp venom or secondary rhabdomyolysis and intravascular hemolysis, which will release myoglobin and free hemoglobin. Inflammatory responses play a central role in these pathological mechanisms. Noteworthily, the successful establishment of a suitable experimental model can assist in basic research and clinical advancements related to wasp venom-induced AKI. The combination of therapeutic plasma exchange and continuous renal replacement therapy appears to be the preferred treatment for wasp venom-induced AKI. In addition, studies on cilastatin and varespladib for wasp venom-induced AKI treatment have shown their potential as therapeutic agents. This review summarizes the available evidence on the mechanisms and treatment of wasp venom-induced AKI, with a particular focus on the role of inflammatory responses and potential targets for therapeutic drugs, and, therefore, aiming to support the development of clinical treatment against wasp venom-induced AKI.

EGFR mutation status in non-small cell lung cancer receiving PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors and its correlation with PD-L1 expression: a meta-analysis.

Meta-analysis was performed on the Web of Science, PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases to evaluate the effect of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutation status on programmed cell death protein 1/programmed death ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) immune checkpoint inhibitors, and the association between EGFR mutation status and PD-L1 expression in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. Pooled effect (hazard ratio/odds ratio, HR/OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated, and the source of heterogeneity was explored by subgroup analysis and meta-regression using Stata/SE 15.0. Meta-analysis of the association between EGFR mutation status and overall survival (OS) in NSCLC with immunotherapy was calculated from four randomized controlled trials. We found that immune checkpoint inhibitors significantly prolonged OS over docetaxel overall (HR 0.71, 95% CI 0.64-0.79) and in the EGFR wild type (HR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.60-0.75), but not in the EGFR mutant subgroup (HR = 1.11, 95% CI = 0.80-1.52). Meta-analysis of the association between EGFR mutation status and PD-L1 expression in NSCLC included 32 studies. The pooled OR and 95% CI were 0.60 (0.46-0.80), calculated by random effects model. No source of heterogeneity was found in subgroup analysis. Sensitivity analysis was carried out with a fixed model, and the influence of a single study on the pooled results showed no significant change with robust meta-analysis methods. Harbord's weighted linear regression test (P = 0.956) and Peters regression test (P = 0.489) indicated no significant publication bias. The limited benefit of single-agent PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in the second-line or later setting for EGFR-mutated NSCLC may be partly due to the lower expression of PD-L1.

Combined effects of lung disease history, environmental exposures, and family history of lung cancer to susceptibility of lung cancer in Chinese non-smokers.

BACKGROUND: Although cigarette smoking is a major risk factor for lung cancer, the incidence rate of lung cancer among non-smokers is notable. The etiology and potential mechanism of non-smoker lung cancer are worthy of further research. This study was designed to explore the collective effects of environmental factors and the relationship between environmental exposure index (EEI) and lung cancer among non-smokers by evaluating the joint effects among lung disease history, environmental factors, and family history of lung cancer without smoking confounders. METHODS: A total of 767 never-smoked lung cancer cases and 767 sex- and age-matched controls were selected from the department of Thoracic Surgery and Respiratory Medicine of three hospitals in Fujian, China. We used two methods to develop the EEI according to 12 statistically significant environmental risk factors. Restricted cubic spline (RCS) was applied to analyze the non-linear relationship between EEI and lung cancer in non-smokers. Combined effects, additive interaction, and multiplicative interaction were assessed among lung disease history, EEI, and family history of lung cancer to estimate susceptibility to develop lung cancer. RESULTS: Lung disease history, especially asthma, was significantly associated with an increased risk of lung cancer with an odds ratio (OR) for asthma history of 14.720 (95% CI: 1.877-115.449). Family history of lung cancer was related to susceptibility of lung cancer (OR = 3.347, 95% CI: 1.930-5.806). According to type of relatives and cancer, a parental or children's history and a sibling's history of lung cancer were significantly associated with an increased risk of lung cancer. The positive association between EEI and lung cancer was apparently stronger in those with lung disease history or family lung cancer history. Furthermore, there was a addictive interaction between EEI and lung disease history, and a possibly addictive interaction between EEI and family lung cancer history on development of lung cancer. CONCLUSIONS: There were combined effects among lung disease history, environmental exposures, and family history of lung cancer toward susceptibility to lung cancer in Chinese non-smokers. Non-smokers who had a family history of lung cancer were at higher risk of lung cancer than non-smokers who had lung disease history. Non-smokers with family cancer history may obtain benefits from removal of environmental exposures and active treatment of lung disease.

Single-nucleotide polymorphism rs17548629 in RIPK1 gene may be associated with lung cancer in a young and middle-aged Han Chinese population.

BACKGROUND: Genetic biomarkers of lung cancer (LC) susceptibility may provide a basis for treatment and prevention. This study analyzed an association between SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) in the complementary region of the 3'-UTR (3' untranslated region) of microRNAs of the gene RIPK1 (receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1) and LC among an adult Han Chinese population aged younger than 60 years. Also explored the effect of regulation of the RIPK1 gene via rs17548629 and microRNA-1197 on the occurrence of LC. METHODS: RIPK1 variants (rs17548629, rs77736895) were determined in a population of 571 adults (younger than 60 years) with LC, and 609 gender- and age-matched healthy individuals. Bioinformatics methods predicted the microRNAs bound to rs17548629. Dual luciferase reporter assay was performed to confirm the presence of both rs17548629 and the predicted microRNA. RESULTS: A mutation (T) of rs17548629 was associated with an increased risk for LC in this population under the codominant and recessive genetic models. The risk of lung adenocarcinoma in rs17548629 mutant carriers was 1.769-fold higher than that of the wildtype. In vitro, the luciferase activity of co-transfected mutant psiCHECK2-RIPK1 and microRNA-1197 mimics was less than that of the group transfected with microRNA-1197 mimics only. Factorial analysis indicated interactions between microRNA-1197 mimics and genotypes of rs17548629. CONCLUSION: A mutation (T) of rs17548629 may increase the risk of LC/lung adenocarcinoma in adult Han populations younger than 60 years. When carrying the T allele, rs17548629 may be the target of hsa-miR-1197. This mutation may affect transcriptional level of the RIPK1, thereby promoting the occurrence of LC.

Size-Dependent Biological Effects of Quercetin Nanocrystals.

Quercetin (QE) is an attractive natural compound for cancer prevention due to its beneficial anti-oxidative and anti-proliferative effects. However, QE is poorly soluble in water and slightly soluble in oil, which results in its low oral bioavailability and limits its application in the clinic. The aim of this study was to prepare QE nanocrystals (QE-NCs) with improved solubility and high drug loading, furthermore, the size-dependent anti-cancer effects of QE-NCs were studied. We prepared QE-NCs with three different particle sizes by wet milling, then, cell proliferation, migration and invasion were studied in A549 cells. The QE-NCs had antitumor effects in a dose- and size-dependent manner. Compared with the large particles, the small particles had a strong inhibitory impact on cell biological effects (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01). Moreover, Western blot assay indicated that QE-NCs may inhibit the migration and invasion of A549 cells by inhibiting the STAT3 signaling pathway, and the particle size may have an effect on this process. In this study, it was proven that NCs could dramatically enhance the anticancer efficacy of QE at the cellular level. In addition, particle size had a considerable influence on the dissolution behavior and antitumor effects of NCs.

Apoferritin Nanocage for Brain Targeted Doxorubicin Delivery.

An ideal brain-targeted nanocarrier must be sufficiently potent to penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and sufficiently competent to target the cells of interest with adequate optimized physiochemical features and biocompatibility. However, it is an enormous challenge to the researchers to organize the above-mentioned properties into a single nanocarrier particle. New frontiers in nanomedicine are advancing the research of new biomaterials. Herein, we demonstrate a straightforward strategy for brain targeting by encapsulating doxorubicin (DOX) into a naturally available and unmodified apoferritin nanocage (DOX-loaded APO). APO can specifically bind to cells expressing transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1). Because of the high expression of TfR1 in both brain endothelial and glioma cells, DOX-loaded APO can cross the BBB and deliver drugs to the glioma with TfR1. Subsequent research demonstrated that the DOX-loaded APO had good physicochemical properties (particle size of 12.03 ± 0.42 nm, drug encapsulation efficiency of 81.8 ± 1.1%) and significant penetrating and targeting effects in the coculture model of bEnd.3 and C6 cells in vitro. In vivo imaging revealed that DOX-loaded APO accumulated specifically in brain tumor tissues. Additionally, in vivo tumor therapy experiments (at a dosage of 1 mg/kg DOX) demonstrated that a longer survival period was observed in mice that had been treated with DOX-loaded APO (30 days) compared with mice receiving free DOX solution (19 days).

Simultaneous determination of metolazone and valsartan in plasma by on-line SPE coupled with liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry.

Combination of metolazone (0.5 mg) and valsartan (80 mg) has been verified as a promising therapy treatment for hypertension. In order to facilitate to pharmacokinetic research, it needs a method for the simultaneously determination of metolazone and valsartan in biological samples. However, there are no relative reports so far. In order to facilitate to pharmacokinetic research, an on-line solid phase extraction coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for the simultaneous determination of metolazone and valsartan in beagle dog plasma was developed and validated in this study. An on-line solid phase extraction column Retain PEP Javelin (10 mm × 2.1 mm) was used to remove impurities in plasma samples. The metolazone, valsartan and internal standard (losartan) were separated on a Poroshell 120 SB-C18 column (4.6 mm × 50 mm × 2.7 µm) with a gradient elution procedure. Acidified acetonitrile/water mixture was used as a mobile phase. The selected multiple-reaction monitoring mode in positive ion was performed and the parent to the product transitions m/z 366/259, m/z 436.2/291 and m/z 423.4/207 were used to measure the metolazone, valsartan and losartan. The method was linear over the range of 0.1-100 ng/mL and 1-1000 ng/mL for metolazone and valsartan, respectively. This method was validated in terms of specificity, linearity, sensitivity, precision, accuracy, matrix effect, and stability and then successfully applied to pharmacokinetic studies of the metolazone and valsartan combination tablets in beagle dogs.

Polymer Nanoparticles Modified with Photo- and pH-Dual-Responsive Polypeptides for Enhanced and Targeted Cancer Therapy.

The cationic nature of cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) and their absence of cell selectivity restrains their applications in vivo. In this work, polymer nanoparticles (NPs) modified with photo- and pH-responsive polypeptides (PPPs) were successfully developed and respond to near-infrared (NIR) light illumination at the tumor site and a lowered tumor extracellular pH (pHe). In PPPs, the internalization function of CPPs (positively charged) is quenched by a pH-sensitive inhibitory peptide (negatively charged), which is linked via a photocleavable group. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) was loaded into NPs by a double-emulsion technique. In vivo experiments included siRNA loading, cellular uptake, cell apoptosis, siRNA transfection, tumor targeting delivery, and the in vivo antitumor efficacy. Results showed that the prepared PPP-NPs could selectively accumulate at the tumor sites and internalized into the tumor cells by the NIR light illumination and the lowered pHe at the tumor site. These studies demonstrated that PPP-NPs are a promising carrier for future tumor gene delivery.

Synchronous delivery of felodipine and metoprolol tartrate using monolithic osmotic pump technology.

The synchronous sustained-release of two drugs was desired urgently for patients needing combination therapy in long term. However, sophisticated technologies were used generally to realize the simultaneous delivery of two drugs especially those with different physico-chemical properties. The purpose of this study was to obtain the concurrent release of felodipine and metoprolol tartrate, two drugs with completely different solubilities, in a simple monolithic osmotic pump system (FMOP). Two types of blocking agents were used in monolithic osmotic pump tablets and the synchronous sustained-release of FMOP was acquired in vitro. The tablets were also administered to beagle dogs and the plasma levels of FMOP were determined by HPLC-MS/MS. The pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated using a non-compartmental model. Cmax of both felodipine and metoprolol from the osmotic pump tablets were lower, tmax and mean residence time of both felodipine and metoprolol from the osmotic pump tablets were longer significantly than those from immediate release tablets. These results verified prolonged release of felodipine and metoprolol tartrate from osmotic pump formulations. The similar absorption rate between felodipine and metoprolol in beagles was also obtained by this osmotic pump formulation. Therefore, it could be supposed that the accordant release of two drugs with completely different solubilities may be realized just by using monolithic osmotic pump technology.

Development and uniform evaluation of ropinirole osmotic pump tablets with REQUIP XL both in vitro and in beagle dogs.

REQUIP XL, prolonged release formulation of ropinirole hydrochloride (RH) in market, could release ropinirole constantly and showed satisfactory therapeutic effect and good compliance. REQUIP XL was composed of more than 10 kinds of excipients and prepared by Geomatrix technology, which was complex and laborious. The purpose of this study was to obtain a dosage form of RH with similar in vitro release profile and bioequivalence in vivo compared to REQUIP XL. Osmotic pump tablet combined with fast release phase was selected as the delivery system of RH and similar release curves were obtained in different media. The tablets were also administered to beagle dogs and the pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated using a non-compartmental model. Cmax, tmax, mean residence time (MRT), and area under the curve from 0 to 24 h (AUC0-24) were 3.97 ± 0.53 ng/mL, 3.58 ± 0.49 h, 8.29 ± 0.93 h, and 35.20 ± 8.11 ng/mL c h for ropinirole osmotic pump tablets (ROPT) and 4.15 ± 1.07 ng/mL, 2.92 ± 0.49 h, 7.84 ± 1.09 h, and 34.34 ± 10.06 ng/mL c h for REQUIP XL. The log-transformed mean Cmax and AUC0-24 of ROPT were about 92.15% and 102.49% relative to that of REQUIP XL, respectively. The 90% confidence intervals of Cmax and AUC0-24 for ROPT were 75.69-115.31% and 88.89-122.30%, respectively. So it could be concluded that ROPT was uniform with REQUIP XL both in vitro and in beagles and the release profiles of Geomatrix technology may be obtained by osmotic pump combined with fast release technology.

A novel oral preparation of hydroxysafflor yellow A base on a chitosan complex: a strategy to enhance the oral bioavailability.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), the main active pharmaceutical ingredient of the safflower plant (Carthamus tinctorius L.), is a hydrophilic drug with low oral bioavailability (BA). The objective of the present study was to improve the oral BA of HSYA by formulation design. The effect of several pharmaceutical excipients on enhancing BA, including Poloxamer 188 (P188), sodium caprate (SC), sodium deoxycholate, and ß-cyclodextrin (ß-CD), was investigated through animal models. Sodium caprate, with a relative BA of 284.2%, was able to improve the oral BA of HSYA. Furthermore, HSYA can bind with chitosan (CS) by Coulomb attraction and form a HSYA-CS complex. The preparation process was optimized, and the binding rate reached 99.4%. HSYA granules were prepared using a HSYA-CS complex and SC. The results of the pharmacokinetics showed that the relative BA of HSYA granules was 476%, much higher than HSYA/SC.

Discovery of novel antitumor dibenzocyclooctatetraene derivatives and related biphenyls as potent inhibitors of NF-κB signaling pathway.

Several dibenzocyclooctatetraene derivatives (5-7) and related biphenyls (8-11) were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for inhibition of cancer cell growth and the NF-κB signaling pathway. Compound 5a, a dibenzocyclooctatetraene succinimide, was discovered as a potent inhibitor of the NF-κB signaling pathway with significant antitumor activity against several human tumor cell lines (GI50 1.38-1.45 µM) and was more potent than paclitaxel against the drug-resistant KBvin cell line. Compound 5a also inhibited LPS-induced NF-κB activation in RAW264.7 cells with an IC50 value of 0.52 µM, prevented IκB-α degradation and p65 nuclear translocation, and suppressed LPS-induced NO production in a dose-dependent manner. The antitumor data in cellular assays indicated that relative positions and types of substituents on the dibenzocyclooctatetraene or acyclic biphenyl as well as torsional angles between the two phenyls are of primary importance to antitumor activity.

The role and mechanism of NLRP3 in wasp venom-induced acute kidney injury.

BACKGROUND: Inflammation and pyroptosis have crucial impacts on the development of acute kidney injury (AKI) and have been validated in a variety of existing AKI animal models. However, the mechanisms underlying wasp venom-induced AKI are still unclear. The involvement of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) in some mouse models of AKI has been extensively documented, and its crucial function in controlling inflammation and pyroptosis has been highlighted. The objective of our study was to investigate the role and mechanism of NLRP3 in inflammation and pyroptosis associated with wasp venom-induced AKI. METHODS: A mouse model of AKI induced by wasp venom pre-injected with an NLRP3 inhibitor was used to study the role and mechanism of NLRP3. To verify the importance of NLRP3, western blotting was performed to assess the expression of NLRP3, caspase-1 p20, and gasdermin D (GSDMD)-N. Additionally, quantitative real-time polymerase was used to determine the expression of NLRP3, caspase-1, and GSDMD. Furthermore, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was utilized to measure the levels of interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-18. RESULTS: NLRP3 was found to be the downstream signal of the stimulator of interferon genes in the wasp sting venom-induced AKI model. The administration of wasp venom in mice significantly upregulated the expression of NLRP3, leading to renal dysfunction, inflammation, and pyroptosis. Treatment with an NLRP3 inhibitor reversed the renal damage induced by wasp venom and attenuated pathological injury, inflammatory response, and pyroptosis. CONCLUSION: NLRP3 activation is associated with renal failure, inflammatory response and pyroptosis in the hyper early phase of wasp venom-induced AKI. The inhibition of NLRP3 significantly weakened this phenomenon. These findings could potentially offer a viable therapeutic approach for AKI triggered by wasp venom.

A rat model of acute kidney injury caused by multiple subcutaneous injections of Asian giant hornet (Vespa mandarina Smith) venom.

A model of acute kidney injury (AKI) caused by multiple subcutaneous injections of Asian giant hornet (Vespa mandarina Smith) venom was developed in male Wistar rats. The rats were injected subcutaneously at multiple sites in the dorsal region with a total venom dose of 5 mg/kg. Blood samples were obtained 8, 24 and 48 h after venom injection for the quantification of various biochemical parameters and assessment of renal function. Wasp venom caused significant increases in all biochemical parameters (aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, free hemoglobin, lactate dehydrogenase, myoglobin, and plasma creatinine) within 8 h of venom administration, as well as marked alterations in renal function (a decrease in glomerular filtration rate leading to oliguria). The biochemical parameters showed varying degrees of recovery but remained elevated to varying degrees after 48 h, whereas the glomerular filtration rate showed no recovery during this period. The histopathological alterations consisted primarily of acute tubular necrosis, with tubular epithelial cell sloughing and loss of tubule brush border. This profile of biochemical and functional alterations was similar to that seen in human envenomations by this species, suggesting that this animal model may be useful for understanding the pathophysiology of AKI caused by this wasp venom.

Phospholipase A2 inhibitor varespladib prevents wasp sting-induced nephrotoxicity in rats.

This study aimed to clarify whether varespladib, a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitor, can be used as a therapeutic agent for wasp sting-induced acute kidney injury (AKI). Rats were divided into control, AKI, and AKI + varespladib groups. The AKI model was established by subcutaneously injecting wasp venom at five different sites in rats. Varespladib treatment showed a significant inhibitory effect on wasp venom PLA2in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we observed that varespladib decreased the levels of rhabdomyolysis and hemolysis markers compared with that in the AKI group. Histopathological changes in the kidney decreased significantly, and rat serum creatinine levels were reduced after varespladib administration. The significantly regulated genes in the kidney of the AKI group were mostly involved in inflammatory response pathway, and the administration of varespladib remarkably attenuated the expression of these genes. Therefore, varespladib inhibited wasp sting-induced functional and pathological damage to the kidneys. We propose that the PLA2 inhibitor varespladib protects the kidney tissue in a wasp sting-induced AKI model by inhibiting PLA2 activity.

Megalin blockade with cilastatin ameliorates multiple wasp sting-induced acute kidney injury in rats.

Cilastatin has been shown to prevent various drug-induced nephrotoxicities and confer renoprotection in a mouse model of glycerol-mediated rhabdomyolysis-induced acute kidney injury (AKI). The present study aimed to investigate whether cilastatin attenuates wasp sting-induced AKI in rats. Male Wistar rats were divided into the control, cilastatin, AKI, and AKI + cilastatin groups. Nephrotoxicity was assessed using renal function, rhabdomyolysis (creatine kinase, CK) and intravascular hemolysis (lactate dehydrogenase, LDH) markers, and histological changes. In addition, tubular injury biomarkers, apoptosis, oxidative stress markers, complement C3 expression, and urine and blood myoglobin levels were examined. Compared with the control or cilastatin group, the AKI group showed significant histological damage, increased levels of CK, LDH, and creatinine, and increased mRNA expression of tubular injury biomarkers. Cilastatin ameliorated wasp venom-induced kidney injury by attenuating oxidative stress and apoptosis. Cilastatin also reduced C3 expression in the renal tubular cells. In addition, cilastatin reduced serum myoglobin levels and increased urine myoglobin concentrations. Therefore, megalin blockade with cilastatin attenuates wasp venom-induced AKI owing to its antioxidative and antiapoptotic properties.

Development and Comparison of Intramuscularly Injected Long-acting Testosterone Undecanoate Nano-/Microcrystal Suspensions with Three Different Particle Size.

The aim of this study was to develop and compare the pharmacokinetic property of testosterone undecanoate (TU) nano-/microcrystal suspension with three different particle sizes after intramuscular (i.m.) administration. TU nano-/microcrystal suspensions were prepared by high pressure homogenization method and the mean particle size was 0.30 ± 0.11 µm (A), 1.21 ± 0.37 µm (B), and 4.83 ± 0.60 µm (C), respectively. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was employed to observe the morphology of nano-/microcrystal suspensions after operation. X-ray Powder diffraction (XRPD) confirmed the crystalline state of TU in nano-/microcrystal suspension. After storage at 4 °C and 25 °C under mechanical shaking for 2 months, physical and chemical stabilities of nano-/microcrystal suspensions were measured by particle size analyzer and high performance liquid chromatography. There was no obvious change in particle size distribution and content of TU. After i.m. administration of suspension C to rats, the concentration of TU in plasma lasted for nearly 12 days that was comparative with the commercial testosterone undecanoate injection. The results showed that microcrystal C with a larger particle size had long-acting effect comparing with other two suspensions. The muscle irritation test in rabbits showed that the local irritation of TU nano-/microcrystal suspensions was lower than that of commercial testosterone undecanoate injection. It can be concluded that appropriate particle size of nano-/microcrystal suspensions for i.m. administration of TU was important to achieve better therapeutic effect.

Solid Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (Solid SEDDS) for Testosterone Undecanoate: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation.

OBJECTIVE: The current study aimed to investigate the potential of Solid Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems (solid SEDDS) loaded with Testosterone Undecanoate (TU) (solid TUSEDDS). The solid TU-SEDDS was composed of TU, Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCT, oil), 2- Chloro-1-(chloromethyl) ethyl carbamate (EL-35, surfactant) and polyethylene glycol (PEG400, cosurfactant). It was expected to improve the dissolution and oral bioavailability of TU, as a result of investigating the feasibility of the clinical application of SEDDS. METHODS: First, a TU-SEDDS was developed by using rational blends of components with the good solubilizing ability for TU. Next, a ternary phase diagram was constructed to determine the self-emulsifying region, and the formulation was optimized. Then, the solid TU-SEDDS formulation was established by screening suitable solid adsorptions. Finally, the prepared SEDDS, TUSEDDS and solid TU-SEDDS formulations were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS: The size of the solid TU-SEDDS was 189.1 ± 0.23 nm. The Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) results showed that the oil droplets were homogenous and spherical with good integrity. The Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and X-Ray Powder Dffraction (XRD) results indicated that the solid TU-SEDDS formulation almost preserves the amorphous state. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) indicated that neusilin US2 successfully adsorbed the TU-SEDDS. Drug release indicated that the dissolution of the solid TU-SEDDS was faster than that of Andriol Testocaps ®. Furthermore, in vivo pharmacokinetic (PK) studies in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats showed that the Area Under the Curve (AUC) of the solid TU-SEDDS (487.54±208.80 µg/L×h) was higher than that of Andriol Testocaps® (418.93±273.52 µg/L×h, P < 0.05). In beagles not fed a high-fat diet, the AUC of the solid TU-SEDDS (5.81±4.03 µg/L×h) was higher than that of Andriol Testocaps ® (5.53±3.43 µg/L×h, P > 0.05). In beagles fed a high-fat diet, the AUC of the solid TUSEDDS (38.18±21.90 µg/L×h) was higher than that of Andriol Testocaps® (37.17±13.79 µg/L×h, P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: According to the results of this research, oral solid TU-SEDDS is expected to be another alternative delivery system for the late-onset hypogonadism. This is beneficial to the transformation of existing drug delivery systems into preclinical and clinical studies.