Oxygen Sensor-Based Respirometry and the Landscape of Microbial Testing Methods as Applicable to Food and Beverage Matrices.

The current status of microbiological testing methods for the determination of viable bacteria in complex sample matrices, such as food samples, is the focus of this review. Established methods for the enumeration of microorganisms, particularly, the 'gold standard' agar plating method for the determination of total aerobic viable counts (TVC), bioluminescent detection of total ATP, selective molecular methods (immunoassays, DNA/RNA amplification, sequencing) and instrumental methods (flow cytometry, Raman spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, calorimetry), are analyzed and compared with emerging oxygen sensor-based respirometry techniques. The basic principles of optical O2 sensing and respirometry and the primary materials, detection modes and assay formats employed are described. The existing platforms for bacterial cell respirometry are then described, and examples of particular assays are provided, including the use of rapid TVC tests of food samples and swabs, the toxicological screening and profiling of cells and antimicrobial sterility testing. Overall, O2 sensor-based respirometry and TVC assays have high application potential in the food industry and related areas. They detect viable bacteria via their growth and respiration; the assay is fast (time to result is 2-8 h and dependent on TVC load), operates with complex samples (crude homogenates of food samples) in a simple mix-and-measure format, has low set-up and instrumentation costs and is inexpensive and portable.

A sensor-based system for rapid on-site testing of microbial contamination in meat samples and carcasses.

AIMS: To develop an oxygen sensor-based method for testing total aerobic viable counts (TVC) in raw meat samples and cattle carcass swabs, which is rapid, simple, affordable, provides good sensitivity and analytical performance and allows on-site use. METHODS AND RESULTS: The test uses the same sample preparation procedure as the established plate counting TVC method for meat samples and carcasses, ISO4833-1:2013. After this liquid samples are transferred into standard 25-ml vials with built-in phosphorescent O2  sensors and incubated on a block heater with hourly readings of sensor signals with a handheld reader, to determine signal threshold time (TT, hours) for each sample. The method is demonstrated with the quantification of TVC in industrial cuts of raw beef meat (CFU per g) and carcass swabs (CFU per cm2 ). Calibration curves were generated, which give the following analytical equations for calculating the TVC load in unknown samples from measured TT values: TVC [Log(CFU per cm2 )] = 7.83-0.73*TT(h) and TVC [Log(CFU per g)] = 8.74-0.70*TT(h) for the carcass swabs and meat samples respectively. The new tests show good correlation with the ISO methods, with correlation coefficients 0.85 and 0.83 respectively. The testing requires no dilutions, covers the ranges 2-7 Log(CFU per g) for the meat samples and 1-7 Log(CFU per cm2 ) for carcass swabs, and has time to result 1-10 h with faster detection of more contaminated samples. CONCLUSIONS: The sensor-based testing demonstrates simplicity, high speed, sample throughput and automation. It can provide a straightforward replacement for the conventional TVC tests, which are time consuming, laborious and have time to result of 48-72 h. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The method(s) can be adopted by the meat industry and research labs, and used to improve microbial quality and safety of meat products and processes.

The impact of pasture and non-pasture diets on the sensory and volatile properties of whole milk powder.

This study evaluated the impact of three distinct diets; perennial ryegrass (GRS), perennial ryegrass/white clover (CLV) and total mixed ration (TMR), on the sensory properties and volatile profile of whole milk powder (WMP). The samples were evaluated using a hedonic sensory acceptance test (n = 99 consumers) and by optimised descriptive profiling (ODP) using trained assessors (n = 33). Volatile profiling was achieved by gas chromatography mass spectrometry using three different extraction techniques; headspace solid phase micro-extraction, thermal desorption and high capacity sorptive extraction. Significant differences were evident in both sensory perception and the volatile profiles of the WMP based on the diet, with WMP from GRS and CLV more similar than WMP from TMR. Consumers scored WMP from CLV diets highest for overall acceptability, flavour and quality, and WMP from TMR diets highest for cooked flavour and aftertaste. ODP analysis found that WMP from TMR diets had greater caramelised flavour, sweet aroma and sweet taste, and that WMP from GRS diets had greater cooked aroma and cooked flavour, with WMP derived from CLV diets having greater scores for liking of colour and creamy aroma. Sixty four VOCs were identified, twenty six were found to vary significantly based on diet and seventeen of these were derived from fatty acids; lactones, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and esters. The abundance of δ-decalactone and δ-dodecalactone was very high in WMP derived from CLV and GRS diets as was γ-dodecalactone derived from a TMR diet. These lactones appeared to influence sweet, creamy, and caramelised attributes in the resultant WMP samples. The differences in these VOC derived from lipids due to diet are probably further exacerbated by the thermal treatments used in WMP manufacture.

A Simple Sensor System for Onsite Monitoring of O2 in Vacuum-Packed Meats during the Shelf Life.

Vacuum packaging (VP) is used to reduce exposure of retail meat samples to ambient oxygen (O2) and preserve their quality. A simple sensor system produced from commercial components is described, which allows for non-destructive monitoring of the O2 concentration in VP raw meat samples. Disposable O2 sensor inserts were produced by spotting small aliquots of the cocktail of the Pt-benzoporphyrin dye and polystyrene in ethyl acetate onto pieces of a PVDF membrane and allowing them to air-dry. These sensor dots were placed on top of the beef cuts and vacuum-packed. A handheld reader, FirestinGO2, was used to read nondestructively the sensor phase shift signals (dphi°) and relate them to the O2 levels in packs (kPa or %). The system was validated under industrial settings at a meat processing plant to monitor O2 in VP meat over nine weeks of shelf life storage. The dphi° readings from individual batch-calibrated sensors were converted into the O2 concentration by applying the following calibration equation: O2 (%) = 0.034 * dphi°2 - 3.413 * dphi° + 85.02. In the VP meat samples, the O2 levels were seen to range between 0.12% and 0.27%, with the sensor dphi signals ranging from 44.03° to 56.02°. The DIY sensor system demonstrated ease of use on-site, fast measurement time, high sample throughput, low cost and flexibility.

A chemometric approach to characterize the aroma of selected brown and red edible seaweeds / extracts.

BACKGROUND: Information pertaining to the aromatic profile of seaweeds and seaweed extracts can provide evidence regarding their potential suitability as ingredients in processed foods. To date only limited material has been available on the volatile profiles of some seaweed species. Others in this study have not previously been described. The volatile profiles of dried brown (Himanthalia elongata, Undaria pinnatifida, Alaria esculenta) and red (Porphyra umbilicalis, Palmaria palmata) seaweeds, and a brown seaweed extract (fucoxanthin) from Laminaria japonica were investigated using a chemometric approach to collate data from volatile gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS), direct sensory aroma evaluation, and gas-chromatography - olfactometry (GC-O) to obtain a better understanding of their volatile profile and sensory perception. RESULTS: More than 100 volatile compounds were identified by static headspace solid phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME) and thermal desorption gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (TD GC-MS). Brown seaweeds were characterized by 'grassy/herbal/floral', 'fruity', and 'fatty' aromas, red seaweeds by 'green/vegetable', 'mushroom/earthy' and 'sweet/buttery' aromas, and the fucoxanthin extract by 'rancid' and 'nutty' aromas with an overall lower intensity. Heptanal appeared to be a major odor-active compound in all samples. Other volatiles were more characteristic of each individual seaweed: hexanal, (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal and 2-pentylfuran for H. elongata; ethyl butanoate and 2,3-butanedione for U. pinnatifida; 6-dimethylpyrazine, (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal and sulactone for P. palmata; 1-octen-3-ol for P. umbilicalis, heptanone for A. esculenta, and 2-furanmethanol for fucoxanthin. CONCLUSION: Brown and red seaweeds had distinct sensory properties with individual seaweeds having differing volatiles and odorants. This study provides additional information that can contribute to the development of products incorporating dried seaweeds / extracts that are more acceptable to the consumer. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Concentrate supplementation with dried corn gluten feed improves the fatty acid profile of longissimus thoracis muscle from steers offered grass silage.

BACKGROUND: Concentrate supplementation of a grass silage-based ration is a typical practice employed for indoor winter finishing of beef cattle in many temperate countries. Plant by-products, such as dried corn gluten feed (CGF), can be used to replace conventional feedstuffs in a concentrate supplement to enhance the sustainability of ruminant production systems and to improve meat quality. This study examined the chemical composition, fatty acid profile, oxidative stability and sensory attributes of beef (longissimus thoracis muscle) from steers offered grass silage and concentrate supplements containing varying levels (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%) of CGF substituted for barley / soybean meal. RESULTS: Feeding 50%CGF decreased the protein content and increased intramuscular fat in comparison with 25%CGF. Total phenol content and iron-reducing antioxidant power followed the order: 0%CGF > 50%CGF and 25%CGF > 0%CGF = 50%CGF, respectively. Compared to 0%CGF, 25%CGF and 75%CGF decreased C14:0 and increased C22:2n-6, C20:5n-3 and total n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids whereas 75%CGF increased conjugated linoleic acids and C18:3n-3. Diet did not affect the oxidative stability and sensory attributes of beef patties. CONCLUSION: The inclusion of up to 75%CGF in a supplementary concentrate for steers increased the proportion of health-promoting unsaturated fatty acids without negatively influencing the shelf-life and eating quality of longissimus thoracis muscle. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of pelvic suspension and post-mortem ageing on the quality of three muscles from Holstein Friesian bulls and steers.

BACKGROUND: The use of bulls rather than steers from the dairy herd offers a more profitable and environmentally friendly option; however, the beef eating quality from bulls is an issue of concern. This study assessed the effect of two tenderization techniques - pelvic suspension and ageing - on three different muscles of Holstein Friesian males from two different production systems. RESULTS: The results indicate that a production system based on steers slaughtered at 24 months (S24) produced beef with better eating quality than from bulls slaughtered at 19 months (B19) when tenderization techniques were not applied. Instrumental texture of longissimus thoracis and gluteus medius muscles was improved with ageing and/or pelvic suspension, with both tenderization techniques exerting greater impact on B19 meat. No differences were found in semitendinosus muscle due to suspension method, whereas ageing for longer than 14 days decreased its instrumental tenderness. Sensory results indicate that, after 14 days of ageing, panellists still preferred meat from S24, and they could differentiate between pelvic and traditional suspension. CONCLUSION: Tenderization methodologies should be optimized for each production system and muscle; however, both panel and instrumental texture results indicate that eating quality of beef from either production systems is acceptable after 14 days of ageing, or even earlier if the suspension method is applied. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Food and temperature stressors have opposing effects in determining flexible migration decisions in brown trout (Salmo trutta).

With rapid global change, organisms in natural systems are exposed to a multitude of stressors that likely co-occur, with uncertain impacts. We explored individual and cumulative effects of co-occurring environmental stressors on the striking, yet poorly understood, phenomenon of facultative migration. We reared offspring of a brown trout population that naturally demonstrates facultative anadromy (sea migration), under different environmental stressor treatments and measured life history responses in terms of migratory tactics and freshwater maturation rates. Juvenile fish were exposed to reduced food availability, temperatures elevated to 1.8°C above natural conditions or both treatments in combination over 18 months of experimental tank rearing. When considered in isolation, reduced food had negative effects on the size, mass and condition of fish across the experiment. We detected variable effects of warm temperatures (negative effects on size and mass, but positive effect on lipids). When combined with food restriction, temperature effects on these traits were less pronounced, implying antagonistic stressor effects on morphological traits. Stressors combined additively, but had opposing effects on life history tactics: migration increased and maturation rates decreased under low food conditions, whereas the opposite occurred in the warm temperature treatment. Not all fish had expressed maturation or migration tactics by the end of the study, and the frequency of these 'unassigned' fish was higher in food deprivation treatments, but lower in warm treatments. Fish showing migration tactics were smaller and in poorer condition than fish showing maturation tactics, but were similar in size to unassigned fish. We further detected effects of food restriction on hypo-osmoregulatory function of migrants that may influence the fitness benefits of the migratory tactic at sea. We also highlight that responses to multiple stressors may vary depending on the response considered. Collectively, our results indicate contrasting effects of environmental stressors on life history trajectories in a facultatively migratory species.

Factors influencing the sensory perception of reformulated baked confectionary products.

Baked confectionary products such as cakes, biscuits, cookies, and muffins are consumed globally as they are coveted for their sensory attributes. However, due to their high sugar and fat content, baked confectionary products are also considered major contributors to the prevalence of obesity and the rise of type II diabetes in industrialized nations and in emerging economies. Both sugar and fat have multiple roles in baked confectionary products in terms of structure, texture, shelf-life, aroma, and taste. Considerable efforts have been undertaken to modify product formulations to decrease sugar and fat contents without compromising on product or sensory quality, and this review focuses on relevant research undertaken to date. Aspects addressed include the impact of decreasing sugar and fat content, the impact of sugar or fat substitutes in relation to sensory perception, with a focus on the role of key product constituents, processing parameters, flavor reactions, aromatic compounds, and flavor chemical and sensory techniques.

Dietary Compounds Influencing the Sensorial, Volatile and Phytochemical Properties of Bovine Milk.

The main aim of this study was to evaluate the volatile profile, sensory perception, and phytochemical content of bovine milk produced from cows fed on three distinct feeding systems, namely grass (GRS), grass/clover (CLV), and total mixed ration (TMR). Previous studies have identified that feed type can influence the sensory perception of milk directly via the transfer of volatile aromatic compounds, or indirectly by the transfer of non-volatile substrates that act as precursors for volatile compounds. In the present study, significant differences were observed in the phytochemical profile of the different feed and milk samples. The isoflavone formonoetin was significantly higher in CLV feed samples, but higher in raw GRS milk, while other smaller isoflavones, such as daidzein, genistein, and apigenin were highly correlated to raw CLV milk. This suggests that changes in isoflavone content and concentration in milk relate to diet, but also to metabolism in the rumen. This study also found unique potential volatile biomarkers in milk (dimethyl sulfone) related to feeding systems, or significant differences in the concentration of others (toluene, p-cresol, ethyl and methyl esters) based on feeding systems. TMR milk scored significantly higher for hay-like flavor and white color, while GRS and CLV milk scored significantly higher for a creamy color. Milk samples were easily distinguishable by their volatile profile based on feeding system, storage time, and pasteurization.

Effect of different forage types on the volatile and sensory properties of bovine milk.

The effect of 3 diets (grass, grass/clover, and total mixed ration) on the volatile and sensory properties of bovine milk was assessed over an entire lactation season. Little evidence was found of direct transfer of terpenes into raw milk from the different diets, and it is likely that the monocultures of ryegrass used with and without white clover were factors as these contained very few terpenes. Evidence of direct transfer of nonterpene volatiles from forage to the subsequent raw milks was probable; however, differences in the protein carbohydrate availability and digestion in the rumen appeared to have a greater contribution to volatile profiles. Pasteurization significantly altered the volatile profiles of all milks. A direct link between the milk fatty acid content, forage, and volatile products of lipid oxidation was also evident and differences in fatty acid content of milk due to forage may also have influenced the viscosity perception of milk. Irish sensory assessors preferred pasteurized milk produced from grass-fed cows, with least preference from milk produced from total mixed ration diets. ß-Carotene content was significantly higher in milks derived from grass or grass/clover and appears to have directly influenced color perception. Toluene and p-cresol are both degradation products of ß-carotene and along with ß-carotene were identified as potential biomarkers for milk derived from pasture. The only correlation that appeared to influence the flavor of milk as determined using ranked descriptive analysis was p-cresol. P-Cresol appears to be responsible for the barnyard aroma of milk and is also likely derived from the deamination and decarboxylation of tryptophan and tyrosine due to the higher levels of available protein in the grass and grass/clover diets. The highest levels of p-cresol were in the grass/clover diets and are likely due to the degradation of the isoflavone formononetin in the rumen, which is present in white clover swards.

Assessment of Performance of the Industrial Process of Bulk Vacuum Packaging of Raw Meat with Nondestructive Optical Oxygen Sensing Systems.

The commercially-available optical oxygen-sensing system Optech-O2 Platinum was applied to nondestructively assess the in situ performance of bulk, vacuum-packaged raw beef in three ~300 kg containers. Twenty sensors were attached to the inner surface of the standard bin-contained laminate bag (10 on the front and back sides), such that after filling with meat and sealing under vacuum, the sensors were accessible for optical interrogation with the external reader device. After filling and sealing each bag, the sensors were measured repetitively and nondestructively over a 15-day storage period at 1 °C, thus tracking residual oxygen distribution in the bag and changes during storage. The sensors revealed a number of unidentified meat quality and processing issues, and helped to improve the packaging process by pouring flakes of dry ice into the bag. Sensor utility in mapping the distribution of residual O2 in sealed bulk containers and optimising and improving the packaging process, including handling and storage of bulk vacuum-packaged meat bins, was evident.

Physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of young dairy bull beef derived from two breed types across five production systems employing two first season feeding regimes.

BACKGROUND: The present study aimed to assess the physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of Longissimus thoracis muscle from young dairy bulls: Holstein-Friesian (HF) and Jersey × Holstein-Friesian (JEX). Bulls slaughtered at 15 months of age differed with respect to the finishing system, whereas 19-month-old bulls differed in energy consumption during a second grazing season and finishing period. All bulls were offered different diets during the first grazing season. RESULTS: Insoluble and total collagen contents increased with slaughter age, whereas collagen solubility and hue angle reduced with age. Bulls fed a higher concentrate finishing diet held a longer beef flavour. Intramuscular fat (IMF) content and beef flavour score were enhanced by higher concentrate intake during the second season and finishing period. Beef from a higher forage diet displayed a more intense red colour and higher thawing loss. There was limited effect of silage finishing or first and second grazing season on quality traits. Beef from JEX breed had a higher IMF content, higher flavour, juiciness and texture-related scores while lower moisture content compared to HF beef. CONCLUSION: The eating quality of beef from young dairy bulls was generally good. Slaughter age and the energy level of diet had obvious effects on quality characteristics. Cross-breeding Jersey with the HF breed can improve the beef quality of young dairy bulls. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of castration and carcass suspension method on the quality and fatty acid profile of beef from male dairy cattle.

BACKGROUND: The use of bulls rather than steers for beef production offers some considerable advantages; however, the eating quality of bull beef is an issue of marketing concern. This study assessed the physicochemical characteristics of young Holstein-Friesian (HF) bull and steer beef. Steer carcasses were suspended by the Achilles tendon (AS) and by pelvic suspension (PS). RESULTS: HF steer beef had higher redness, yellowness and chroma values, whereas bulls had higher ultimate pH and darker muscle. Warner-Bratzler shear force, cook loss at different ageing times, moisture, and insoluble and total collagen were higher for HF bull beef, whereas intramuscular fat, soluble collagen and collagen solubility were higher for steer beef. HF steer beef had a higher proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), whereas bull beef had higher proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), PUFA/SFA and n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios. In comparison to AS, PS increased redness and chroma after 24 h blooming; PS improved tenderness up to 7 days of ageing and accelerated the ageing process. CONCLUSION: For young dairy cattle, steer beef would likely have superior eating quality but a relatively less favourable nutritional fatty acid profile to bull beef. Suspension method affected the tenderness and colour intensity of dairy steer beef at different ageing times. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Enhancement of phytochemical content and drying efficiency of onions (Allium cepa L.) through blanching.

BACKGROUND: This study investigated the effect of blanching (60, 70 and 80 °C for 1, 3, 5 and 10 min) combined with oven drying at 60 °C on the phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, colour and drying characteristics (drying time, drying rate constant, effective moisture diffusivity and activation energy) of onion slices. RESULTS: Blanching of onion slices at 60 °C for 3 min and at 70 °C for 1 min prior to drying increased their bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity compared to the control samples and other treatments. Eighteen drying models were evaluated. The Modified Page and two-term exponential models best represented the drying data. The effective diffusivity ranged from 3.32 × 10-11 m2 s-1 (control) to 5.27 × 10-11 m2 s-1 , 5.01 × 10-11 m2 s-1 , and 4.74 × 10-11 m2 s-1 for onions blanched at 60 °C, 70 °C and 80 °C, respectively. The higher activation energy was observed for the control (unblanched) sample and slightly lower values were found for 1 min- and 3 min-blanched samples, confirming the higher drying efficiency as a result of the blanching pre-treatment. CONCLUSION: The use of blanching as a pre-treatment before drying of onions resulted in enhanced phytochemical content and drying efficiency. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluation of polyphenolic content and antioxidant activity in two onion varieties grown under organic and conventional production systems.

BACKGROUND: Onions contain a number of bioactive compounds, in particular polyphenols. They are rich sources of such compounds in the human diet and offer significant health benefits to the consumer. Demand for organic crops is steadily increasing partly based on the expected health benefits of organic food consumption. The current study examines the influence of organic and conventional crop management practices on bioactive polyphenolic content of onion. RESULTS: We examined the effect of conventional, organic, and mixed cultivation practices on the content of total phenolics, total flavonoids and antioxidant activity in two varieties of onion grown over 4 years in a split-plot factorial systems comparison trial. Levels of total phenolics and total flavonoids showed a significant year-on-year variation and were significantly different between organic and conventional production systems. The levels of total phenolics, total flavonoids and antioxidant activity in general were significantly higher (P < 0.05) under fully organic compared to fully conventional management. CONCLUSION: Organic cultivation practices resulted in significantly higher levels of potential bioactive compounds in onion. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

An Assessment of the Influence of the Industry Distribution Chain on the Oxygen Levels in Commercial Modified Atmosphere Packaged Cheddar Cheese Using Non-Destructive Oxygen Sensor Technology.

The establishment and control of oxygen levels in packs of oxygen-sensitive food products such as cheese is imperative in order to maintain product quality over a determined shelf life. Oxygen sensors quantify oxygen concentrations within packaging using a reversible optical measurement process, and this non-destructive nature ensures the entire supply chain can be monitored and can assist in pinpointing negative issues pertaining to product packaging. This study was carried out in a commercial cheese packaging plant and involved the insertion of 768 sensors into 384 flow-wrapped cheese packs (two sensors per pack) that were flushed with 100% carbon dioxide prior to sealing. The cheese blocks were randomly assigned to two different storage groups to assess the effects of package quality, packaging process efficiency, and handling and distribution on package containment. Results demonstrated that oxygen levels increased in both experimental groups examined over the 30-day assessment period. The group subjected to a simulated industrial distribution route and handling procedures of commercial retailed cheese exhibited the highest level of oxygen detected on every day examined and experienced the highest rate of package failure. The study concluded that fluctuating storage conditions, product movement associated with distribution activities, and the possible presence of cheese-derived contaminants such as calcium lactate crystals were chief contributors to package failure.

Seaweed polysaccharides (laminarin and fucoidan) as functional ingredients in pork meat: an evaluation of anti-oxidative potential, thermal stability and bioaccessibility.

The anti-oxidative potential of laminarin (L), fucoidan (F) and an L/F seaweed extract was measured using the DPPH free radical scavenging assay, in 25% pork (longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL)) homogenates (TBARS) (3 and 6 mg/mL) and in horse heart oxymyoglobin (OxyMb) (0.1 and 1 mg/mL). The DPPH activity of fresh and cooked minced LTL containing L (100 mg/g; L100), F100 and L/F100,300, and bioaccessibility post in vitro digestion (L/F300), was assessed. Theoretical cellular uptake of antioxidant compounds was measured in a transwell Caco-2 cell model. Laminarin displayed no activity and fucoidan reduced lipid oxidation but catalysed OxyMb oxidation. Fucoidan activity was lowered by cooking while the L/F extract displayed moderate thermal stability. A decrease in DPPH antioxidant activity of 44.15% and 36.63%, after 4 and 20 h respectively, indicated theoretical uptake of L/F antioxidant compounds. Results highlight the potential use of seaweed extracts as functional ingredients in pork.

Pectin/sodium alginate-based active film integrated with microcrystalline cellulose and geraniol for food packaging applications.

Biopolymer-based packaging films were prepared from pectin (PEC) and sodium alginate (SA), with the incorporation of 10 % MCC and different concentrations of geraniol (GER at 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 %). Rheological properties suggested that film-forming solutions and film-forming emulsions exhibited a shear-thinning or pseudo-plastic non-Newtonian behaviour. The dried films were crosslinked with 2.0 % CaCl2. The addition of MCC into PEC/SA film enhanced the TS but reduced it with the impregnation of GER without influencing the EAB and toughness of the film. The water solubility of the films significantly reduced with the rise in the GER levels but enhanced the water vapor and oxygen barrier attributes. TGA demonstrated that incorporating MCC reduced the film's thermal degradation (44.92 % to 28.81 %), but GER had an insignificant influence on the thermal stability. FTIR spectra revealed that hydrogen bond formation was positively linked with the GER addition in the film formulation. X-ray diffractograms showed that prepared films were predominantly amorphous. Antimicrobial studies showed a complete reduction of Escherichia coli and Bacillus cereus in 24 h. Overall, the composite film displayed excellent physical and active properties and PEC/SA/MCC/5.0 %GER/CaCl2 film was considered the best formulation for food packaging applications.

Addressing Clean Label Trends in Commercial Meat Processing: Strategies, Challenges and Insights from Consumer Perspectives.

BACKGROUND: The concept of a clean label is difficult to define, even in common language, as the interpretation of what a "clean" food is differs from one person to another and from one organisation to another. The lack of a unique definition and regulations of what the term "clean" means, along with the growing consumer demand for more "natural" and healthier foods, is posing new challenges for manufacturers and ingredient producers. The meat industry, in particular, has been affected by this new movement owing to negative attitudes and feelings consumers associate with consuming processed meat products. Scope and approach: The review scope is to describe attributes and associations around the "clean" label term by analysing the most recent ingredients, additives and processing methods currently available for meat manufacturers. Their application in meat, plant-based alternatives and hybrid meat/plant products, current limitations and challenges presented in consumer perception, safety and potential impacts on product quality are also presented. KEY FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS: The availability of a growing number of "clean" label ingredients provides a new suite of approaches that are available for application by meat processors to help overcome some of the negative connotations associated with processed meat products and also support plant-based meat alternatives and hybrids.