Bacterial Attachment, Aggregation, and Alignment on Subcellular Nanogratings.

Recent investigations on the interactions of bacteria with micro/nanostructures have revealed a wide range of prokaryotic responses that were previously unknown. Despite these advances, however, it remains unclear how collective bacterial behavior on a surface would be influenced by the presence of anisotropic nanostructures with subcellular dimensions. To clarify this, the attachment, aggregation, and alignment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on orderly subcellular nanogratings with systematically varied geometries were investigated. Compared with a flat surface, attachment and aggregation of bacteria on the nanogratings were reduced by up to 83 and 84% respectively, whereas alignment increased by a maximum of 850%. Using a semiempirical quantitative model, these results were shown to be caused by a lowering of physicochemical attraction between the substrate and bacteria, possible disruption to cell communication, and physical isolation of bacteria that were entrenched in the nanogratings by capillary action. Furthermore, the bacterial attachment level was generally found to be exponentially related to the contact area between the substrate and bacterial cells, except when there were significant deficits in the available contact area, which prompted the bacterial cells to employ their appendages to maintain a minimum attachment rate. Because the contact area for adhesion is strongly dependent on the geometry of the surface features and orientation of the bacterial cells, these results indicate that the conventional practice of using roughness parameters to draw quantitative relationships between surface topographies and bacterial attachment could suffer from inaccuracies due to the lack of shape and orientation information provided by these parameters. On the basis of these insights, design principles for generating maximal and minimal bacterial attachment on a surface were also proposed and verified with results reported in the literature.

Nonlinear Flow Rate Response to Pumping Frequency and Reduced Hemolysis in the Drastically Under-Occluded Pulsatile Roller Pump.

Roller pumps are widely used in many medical procedures including cardiopulmonary bypass, left/right ventricular assist, and hemodialysis. However, to date, the problem of the roller pumping mechanism causing significant hemolysis remains unresolved. It has been shown that with under-occlusion of the roller pump, hemolysis can be reduced, but significant reduction of the mean flow rate also takes place due to backflow through the under-occlusion. We performed an investigation of the flow dynamics of an under-occluded roller pump which featured significantly higher amount of under-occlusion than previously investigated. Our results showed that the mean flow rate produced by the pump has a strong, nonlinear dependence on pumping frequency. Mean flow rate generally increases with the pumping frequency and the degree of maximum occlusion except at certain frequencies where sharp reductions were observed. These frequencies coincide with the fundamental frequency of the system and its harmonics, bearing resemblance to the impedance pump, suggesting that the drastically under-occluded roller pump is a unique device that employs the pumping mechanisms of both roller pumping and impedance pumping. At the appropriate frequencies, this under-occluded roller pump could sustain sufficiently high flow rates for clinical uses. Blood damage potential of the under-occluded roller pump was compared to a fully occluded roller pump via the assay of free-plasma hemoglobin, and it was found that the under-occlusion reduced hemolysis by about half for any given flow rate. The drastically under-occluded roller pumping reported in this study, therefore, has the potential of being translated into an improved clinical blood pump.

Fluid mechanics of human fetal right ventricles from image-based computational fluid dynamics using 4D clinical ultrasound scans.

There are 0.6-1.9% of US children who were born with congenital heart malformations. Clinical and animal studies suggest that abnormal blood flow forces might play a role in causing these malformation, highlighting the importance of understanding the fetal cardiovascular fluid mechanics. We performed computational fluid dynamics simulations of the right ventricles, based on four-dimensional ultrasound scans of three 20-wk-old normal human fetuses, to characterize their flow and energy dynamics. Peak intraventricular pressure gradients were found to be 0.2-0.9 mmHg during systole, and 0.1-0.2 mmHg during diastole. Diastolic wall shear stresses were found to be around 1 Pa, which could elevate to 2-4 Pa during systole in the outflow tract. Fetal right ventricles have complex flow patterns featuring two interacting diastolic vortex rings, formed during diastolic E wave and A wave. These rings persisted through the end of systole and elevated wall shear stresses in their proximity. They were observed to conserve ∼25.0% of peak diastolic kinetic energy to be carried over into the subsequent systole. However, this carried-over kinetic energy did not significantly alter the work done by the heart for ejection. Thus, while diastolic vortexes played a significant role in determining spatial patterns and magnitudes of diastolic wall shear stresses, they did not have significant influence on systolic ejection. Our results can serve as a baseline for future comparison with diseased hearts.

Synthesis of free-standing, curved Si nanowires through mechanical failure of a catalyst during metal assisted chemical etching.

The fabrication of orderly arrays of free-standing, curved Si nanowires over large areas (1 cm × 1 cm) was demonstrated by means of interference lithography and intentional mechanical failure of a perforated Au catalyst during metal assisted chemical etching. Photoresist microgrooves were deposited on the perforated Au film to cause uneven etching which resulted in the build-up of bending stresses in the Au film to the point of catastrophic failure. By considering the initial positions of the holes in the perforated Au film relative to the photoresist constraints, the precise location of the fracture can be predicted using simple beam mechanics. Therefore, the type of curved nanowires obtained can be designed with a high degree of reliability and control. Four distinct types of nanowire arrangements were demonstrated for this study.

Enhanced photoelectrochemical water splitting using carbon cloth functionalized with ZnO nanostructures via polydopamine assisted electroless deposition.

ZnO nanorods (ZnO-nr) have been widely studied as a promising nanomaterial for photoelectrochemical water splitting. However, almost all prior studies employed planar electrodes. Here, we investigated the performance of ZnO nanorods on a fibrous carbon cloth (CC) electrode, which offers a larger surface area for functionalization of photocatalysts. ZnO nanorods and Ni nanofilm were deposited on carbon cloth substrates for investigation as the photoanode and cathode of a photoelectrochemical water splitting setup, respectively. The use of polydopamine in the electroless deposition of ZnO ensured a uniform distribution of nanorods that were strongly adherent to the microfiber surface of the carbon cloth. Compared to ZnO nanorods grown on planar ITO/glass substrates, the CC-based ZnO photoanodes exhibited smaller onset potentials (1.1 VRHEvs. 1.8 VRHE), ∼40× larger dark faradaic currents at 1.23 VRHE and 5.5×-9× improvement in photoconversion efficiencies. Ni/CC cathodes were also found to exhibit a lower overpotential@10 mA cm-2 than Ni/Cu by 90 mV. The photocurrent obtained from the ZnO-nr/CC anode was highly stable across an hour and the peak current decreased by only 5% across 5 cycles of illumination, compared to 72% for the planar ZnO-nr/ITO anode. However, the response of the CC-based setups to changes in the illumination conditions was slower, taking hundreds of seconds to reach peak photocurrent, compared to tens of seconds for the planar electrodes. Using cyclic voltammetry, the double-layer capacitance of the electrodes was measured, and it was shown that the increased efficiency of the ZnO-nr/CC anode was due to a 2 order of magnitude increase in electrochemically active sites provided by the copious microfiber surface of the carbon cloth.

Uni-, bi-, and tri-directional wetting caused by nanostructures with anisotropic surface energies.

Wetting is a pervasive phenomenon that governs many natural and artificial processes. Asymmetric wetting along a single axis, in particular, has generated considerable interest but has thus far been achieved only by the creation of structural anisotropy. In this paper, we report that such directional wetting can also be achieved by anisotropically coating nanostructure surfaces with materials that modify the nanostructure surface energy, a phenomenon that has not been observed in natural or artificial systems thus far. Moreover, by combining this newfound chemical influence on wetting with topographic features, we are able to restrict wetting in one, two and three directions. A model that explains these findings in terms of anisotropy of the pinning forces at the triple phase contact line is presented. Through the resulting insights, a flexible method for precise control of wetting is created.

Dynamics of wicking in silicon nanopillars fabricated with interference lithography and metal-assisted chemical etching.

The capillary rise of liquid on a surface, or "wicking", has potential applications in biological and industrial processes such as drug delivery, oil recovery, and integrated circuit chip cooling. This paper presents a theoretical study on the dynamics of wicking on silicon nanopillars based on a balance between the driving capillary forces and viscous dissipation forces. Our model predicts that the invasion of the liquid front follows a diffusion process and strongly depends on the structural geometry. The model is validated against experimental observations of wicking in silicon nanopillars with different heights synthesized by interference lithography and metal-assisted chemical etching techniques. Excellent agreement between theoretical and experimental results, from both our samples and data published in the literature, was achieved.

The Effects of Subcellular Nanograting Geometry on the Formation and Growth of Bacterial Biofilms.

Biofilm formation by bacteria protects them against environmental stresses such as desiccation, shear forces and antimicrobial agents, making them much harder to remove and increasing their virulence and persistence in industrial water systems and biomedical equipment. One promising method of disrupting biofilm formation and growth is to employ passive surface structures to inhibit bacterial adhesion and aggregation. However, most studies thus far have mainly focused on the early stages of biofilm formation and it is unclear if the influence of surface topography in the early phase will propagate to later stages. Here, we attempt to address this with an investigation into the biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on 25 different nanograting geometries, with dimensions that were systematically varied from subcellular to cellular sizes. The biofilms were characterized from the exponential growth phase to the decline phase, in intervals of 24 H over 4 days, using confocal scanning laser microscopy. Comparing the maximum volume of biofilm formed on each surface over 96 H, it was found that approximately 1/3 of the nanograting geometries exhibited 72 ± 16 % lower biovolume density than a flat surface. Bacteria on these nanogratings were also observed to form 40 ± 11 % smaller microcolonies that were 17 ± 6 % less compact than that found on the control surface. The majority of these nanogratings had deep trenches (i.e. depth ≥ 70% of the cell diameter). Furthermore, P. aeruginosa cells were observed to multiply at approximately twice the rate on almost all the nanogratings compared to flat surfaces, but these cell populations also began to decline 24 H earlier than those on a flat surface. Using available literature on P. aeruginosa, a qualitative model was put forth, attributing the results to increased cell motility, decreased exopolysaccharide formation and disrupted psl adhesin/signal trails on nanogratings. These factors, together, led to the net effects of reduced attachment, increased scattering of cells and rapid decline of the biofilms on nanogratings. The insights derived from this study suggest that passive surface geometries can be designed and optimized to successfully control/inhibit biofilm formation and growth.

Fluid mechanics of blood flow in human fetal left ventricles based on patient-specific 4D ultrasound scans.

The mechanics of intracardiac blood flow and the epigenetic influence it exerts over the heart function have been the subjects of intense research lately. Fetal intracardiac flows are especially useful for gaining insights into the development of congenital heart diseases, but have not received due attention thus far, most likely because of technical difficulties in collecting sufficient intracardiac flow data in a safe manner. Here, we circumvent such obstacles by employing 4D STIC ultrasound scans to quantify the fetal heart motion in three normal 20-week fetuses, subsequently performing 3D computational fluid dynamics simulations on the left ventricles based on these patient-specific heart movements. Analysis of the simulation results shows that there are significant differences between fetal and adult ventricular blood flows which arise because of dissimilar heart morphology, E/A ratio, diastolic-systolic duration ratio, and heart rate. The formations of ventricular vortex rings were observed for both E- and A-wave in the flow simulations. These vortices had sufficient momentum to last until the end of diastole and were responsible for generating significant wall shear stresses on the myocardial endothelium, as well as helicity in systolic outflow. Based on findings from previous studies, we hypothesized that these vortex-induced flow properties play an important role in sustaining the efficiency of diastolic filling, systolic pumping, and cardiovascular flow in normal fetal hearts.

Metal assisted anodic etching of silicon.

Metal assisted anodic etching (MAAE) of Si in HF, without H2O2, is demonstrated. Si wafers were coated with Au films, and the Au films were patterned with an array of holes. A Pt mesh was used as the cathode while the anodic contact was made through either the patterned Au film or the back side of the Si wafer. Experiments were carried out on P-type, N-type, P(+)-type and N(+)-type Si wafers and a wide range of nanostructure morphologies were observed, including solid Si nanowires, porous Si nanowires, a porous Si layer without Si nanowires, and porous Si nanowires on a thick porous Si layer. Formation of wires was the result of selective etching at the Au-Si interface. It was found that when the anodic contact was made through P-type or P(+)-type Si, regular anodic etching due to electronic hole injection leads to formation of porous silicon simultaneously with metal assisted anodic etching. When the anodic contact was made through N-type or N(+)-type Si, generation of electronic holes through processes such as impact ionization and tunnelling-assisted surface generation were required for etching. In addition, it was found that metal assisted anodic etching of Si with the anodic contact made through the patterned Au film essentially reproduces the phenomenology of metal assisted chemical etching (MACE), in which holes are generated through metal assisted reduction of H2O2 rather than current flow. These results clarify the linked roles of electrical and chemical processes that occur during electrochemical etching of Si.

Versatile fabrication and applications of dense, orderly arrays of polymeric nanostructures over large areas.

Dense arrays of nanostructures were fabricated in polymer surfaces over large areas (1 cm × 1 cm) using laser interference lithography and low power CF4/O2 plasma etching. The dependence of the etch rate and etch anisotropy on plasma composition was studied in detail for polystyrene and 4 distinct regimes were identified. In each of these regimes, the polystyrene nanostructures exhibit characteristic variations of etch rate, etch anisotropy and surface chemistry that were found to be closely related to the level of fluorination and polymerization on the substrate surface. A new technique, stitch etching, was developed and utilized in conjunction with low power plasma etching to increase the height of nanostructures without loss of array density. These nanofabrication techniques are shown to be versatile enough to be applied to a variety of polymers. The polymeric nanostructures were found to exhibit a number of useful properties including superhydrophobicity (directional effect, lotus leaf effect and rose petal effect), structural stiffness and biocompatibility, which were shown to be useful in applications such as self-cleaning surfaces, nanoimprinting molds and biocompatible substrates for neurite guidance.

Droplet spreading on a two-dimensional wicking surface.

The dynamics of droplet spreading on two-dimensional wicking surfaces were studied using square arrays of Si nanopillars. It was observed that the wicking film always precedes the droplet edge during the spreading process causing the droplet to effectively spread on a Cassie-Baxter surface composed of solid and liquid phases. Unlike the continual spreading of the wicking film, however, the droplet will eventually reach a shape where further spreading becomes energetically unfavorable. In addition, we found that the displacement-time relationship for droplet spreading follows a power law that is different from that of the wicking film. A quantitative model was put forth to derive this displacement-time relationship and predict the contact angle at which the droplet will stop spreading. The predictions of our model were validated with experimental data and results published in the literature.