The adaptive medical curriculum: A model for continuous improvement.

This paper describes the medical curriculum designed to foster adaptive expertise. Engaging in the formal and informal curriculum, students learn to achieve desired outcomes in novel situations, perform comfortably with uncertainty, and are often recognized for creative problem-solving. Students learn by asking and answering their own and others' questions. They readily operate at the metacognitive level, anticipating events, self-monitoring, and checking decisions and emotions. A key function of the reflective process is to identify gaps or shortcomings in the thinking process. The adaptive learner shifts into reflective thinking when confronted with complex contextual and situational demands. We are only beginning to understand how to create educational pathways to foster adaptive learning. An essential focus is the adaptive teacher who frames learning and assessment around predictive analytics, reflective spaced practice, and authentic learning material. To be effective, the teacher must engage the learner outside the formal classroom in the parallel curriculum. A major premise is that learning occurs individually and together with peers, teachers, and team members in multiple contexts. During the learning process, the learner readily operates at the metacognitive level, anticipating behavior, self-monitoring and assessing, and checking theirs and others decisions and emotions. The adaptive medical curriculum provides the pathway for such learning.

Adaptive medical education research.

This commentary reflects on what the four research articles in this issue of Medical Teacher tell us about adaptive learning and how adaptive medical education research can be conducted. Adaptive medical education researchers must think disruptively and embrace nontraditional collaborations, research methods, and means of dissemination in pursuit of evidence that enhances adaptive learning.

Assessing learning in the adaptive curriculum.

BACKGROUND: Medical education is a dynamic process that will continuously evolve to respond to changes in the foundations of medicine, the clinical practice of medicine and in health systems science. PURPOSE: In this paper, we review how assessing learning in such a dynamic environment requires comprehensive flexible and adaptable methodological approaches designed to assess knowledge attainment and transfer, clinical skills/competency development, and ethical/professional behavior. Adaptive assessments should measure the learner's ability to observe where changes in health care delivery are needed and how to implement them. Balancing formative and summative assessments will promote reflective learning so that each student will reach her/his highest potential. From the programmatic perspective, measuring the design and delivery of instruction in relation to students? efforts to achieve competency will improve learning and foster continuous professional development of faculty and advance the science of learning. APPROACH: We describe how two medical schools are approaching adaptive assessment, including using portfolio systems that encompass teaching and learning experiences while offering real-time longitudinal tracking of digital data toward improving learning and provide curricula continuous improvement cycles. Using latest technologies, portfolios produce actionable data displays with precise guidance for learning and program development.

LectureKeepr: A novel approach to studying in the adaptive curriculum.

As medical students search for ways to squeeze more hours of learning into their day, many have turned to technology for quick and efficient ways to study. Most commonly this includes based apps for purchase that involve visual tasks, mental review and repetition. Tasks involve flashcard creation, answering multiple choice questions (MCQs) and schedule planning. They typically require students to visually interact with a computer or smartphone screen. Alternatively, auditory apps may not only offer the benefit of enhanced learning through review and repetition, but also address convenience, portability, and metacognitive development without physical and temporal requirements of visual presentation. Auditory learning is eyes and "hands-free" allowing the learner to contiguously engage in other activities such as physical exercise, traveling, eating, etc. In this randomized, case-comparison study, half of the students were exposed to audio lecture content before class using a mobile application called LectureKeepr (LK) and half were exposed to lecture content before class via written material prepared by the professor. Pre- and post-MCQ quizzes were used to measure differences between groups in knowledge improvement. In addition, student perceptions of the auditory learning experience were assessed by an on-line survey. ANOVA with repeated measures revealed that students in the LK intervention group performed better on the postquiz than the students in the written materials group.

Development of a metacognitive effort construct of empathy during clinical training: a longitudinal study of the factor structure of the Jefferson Scale of Empathy.

Empathy is crucial for effective clinical care but appears to decline during undergraduate medical training. Understanding the nature of this decline is necessary for addressing it. The Jefferson Scale of Empathy (JSE) is used to measure medical students' clinical empathy attitudes. One recent study described a 3-factor model of the JSE. This model was found in responses from matriculating medical students, but little is known about how the factor structure of the scale changes during clinical training. The Learning Environment Study is a longitudinal prospective study of two cohorts from 28 medical schools. At matriculation and at the end of each subsequent year, students self-reported clinical empathy attitudes using the JSE. Data from 4,797 students were randomly partitioned for exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses using responses from preclinical and clinical years of medical school. Five models were compared for confirmatory factor analysis: two null models for control, the recent 3-factor model, and the two models resulting from the EFAs of preclinical and clinical year responses. Preclinical year responses yielded a 3-factor model similar to the recent 3-factor model. Clinical year responses yielded a 4-factor model ("feelings," "importance," "ease," and "metacognitive effort") suggesting changes in the structure of clinical empathy attitudes over time. Metacognitive effort showed the largest decline over time. The model is a better fit for both preclinical and clinical responses and may provide more insight into medical students' clinical empathy attitudes than other models. The emergence of metacognitive effort in the clinical years suggests empathy may become more nuanced for students after clinical exposure and may account for much of the observed decline in clinical empathy attitudes.

The impact on medical practice of commitments to change following CME lectures: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Self-reported commitment to change (CTC) could be a potentially valuable method to address the need for continuing medical education (CME) to demonstrate clinical outcomes. AIM: This study determines: (1) are clinicians who make CTCs more likely to report changes in their medical practices and (2) do these changes persist over time? METHODS: Intervention participants (N = 80) selected up to three commitments from a predefined list following the lecture, while control participants (N = 64) generated up to three commitments at 7 days post-lecture. At 7 and 30 days post-lecture, participants were queried if any practice change occurred as a result of attending the lecture. RESULTS: About 91% of the intervention group reported practice changes consistent with their commitments at 7 days. Only 32% in the control group reported changes (z = 7.32, p < 0.001). At 30 days, more participants in the intervention group relative to the control group reported change (58% vs. 22%, z = 3.74, p < 0.01). Once a participant from either group made a commitment, there were no differences in reported changes (63% vs. 67%, z = <0.00, p = 0.38). CONCLUSION: Integration of CTC is an effective method of reinforcing learning and measuring outcomes.

Applying patient perspectives on caring to curriculum development.

OBJECTIVE: To report how patient viewpoints on caring inform curriculum development for teaching sessions on delivering bad news, making the transition to palliative care, and communicating about a medical error. METHODS: We conducted focus groups that used patients recruited from the surrounding community to view videotapes of physicians delivering bad news, talking with a patient about palliative care, and communicating about a medical error. We used focus group results, combined with evidence from the medical literature to inform curriculum content for workshops conducted with Internal Medicine and Family Medicine residents at the University of Massachusetts Medical School. RESULTS: Patient perspectives on caring gathered through focus groups differed in significant ways from the existing medical literature on caring when providers are communicating in the challenging situations that were depicted. Our data pointed out that individual reactions were unique and sometimes contradictory in that one person saw behavior as caring that others thought was uncaring. Participants often used qualifiers in their comments like "appropriate" amounts of information, "measured" empathy, chooses words carefully to reflect the relative nature of caring. "Arranges to meet healthcare needs," an issue that extends beyond the encounter, was seen as a new component of caring not previously described. Applying these concepts to curriculum required that we not only focus on the behavioral skills involved in these tasks, but also the processes of assessing patient's informational and emotional needs, and then taking steps to meet them, while adjusting behavior in real time to meet patients needs for caring. Workshops delivered were highly evaluated by residents. CONCLUSION: Patient perspectives on caring when providers deliver bad news, discuss transitions to palliative care, and communicate about a medical error reinforce that patient expectations for caring are highly contextualized and physician behavior needs to be individualized. We taught residents not only behavioral skills, but also the process skills of anticipating patient reactions, recognizing patient clues, planning and choosing effective strategies on the fly, and assessing one's own performance characteristic of communication expertise. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Teaching caring attitudes with challenging communication tasks requires that learners appreciate and value not only caring behaviors but also learn the process by which they must adjust and titrate their actions to meet patient needs.

How patients perceive a doctor's caring attitude.

OBJECTIVE: Caring is closely associated with reduced malpractice litigation, adherence to treatment and even symptom relief. Caring also is included in pay for performance formulas as well as widely utilized for quality improvement purposes. Our objective in this prospective qualitative study was to define caring behaviors associated with three challenging encounters: discussing the transition from curative to palliative care, delivering bad news (cancer), and discussing a medical error (misplaced test result). The purpose was to lay the groundwork for the creation of a 'patient-centered' caring attitude checklist that could help the healthcare provider understand and ultimately enhance the patient's experience of care. METHODS: Groups of randomly selected lay people, henceforth referred to as patients: (1) engaged in 'think aloud' exercises to help create a 15-item caring behavior checklist; (2) used the checklist to rate videotapes of simulated challenging encounters conducted by twenty primary care physicians (total of 600 ratings sets); and (3) participated in 12 separate 1.5 h focus groups discussing the caring (and non-caring) behaviors exhibited in videotapes of the highest and lowest rated encounters. RESULTS: Thirteen behaviors emerged as focal for describing a doctor's caring attitude but with disagreement as to whether specific examples of these behaviors were 'caring' or 'uncaring.' For example, although the concept of empathic inquiry was considered important by most patients, the physician question, "Is there someone you can call or talk with" (about a cancer diagnosis) was interpreted by one patient as 'very caring' while another was 'impressed with how uncaring' the statement appeared. CONCLUSION: At the conceptual level there is a set of behaviors that represent caring, however, the manifestation of these behaviors is 'in the eye of the beholder.' The most important element of caring may not be the set of behaviors but a set of underlying abilities that include taking the patient's perspective and reflecting on the patient's responses. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Medical education must focus on the underlying abilities of caring.

The impact of deliberate reflection with WISE-MD™ modules on surgical clerkship students' critical thinking: a prospective, randomized controlled pilot study.

PURPOSE: Critical thinking underlies several Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC)-defined core entrustable professional activities (EPAs). Critical-thinking ability affects health care quality and safety. Tested tools to teach, assess, improve, and nurture good critical-thinking skills are needed. This prospective randomized controlled pilot study evaluated the addition of deliberate reflection (DR), guidance with Web Initiative in Surgical Education (WISE-MD™) modules, to promote surgical clerks' critical-thinking ability. The goal was to promote the application of reflective awareness principles to enhance learning outcomes and critical thinking about the module content. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: Surgical clerkship (SC) students were recruited from two different blocks and randomly assigned to a control or intervention group. The intervention group was asked to record responses using a DR guide as they viewed two selected WISE-MD™ modules while the control group was asked to view two modules recording free thought. We hypothesized that the intervention group would show a significantly greater pre- to postintervention increase in critical-thinking ability than students in the control group. RESULTS: Neither group showed a difference in pre- and posttest free-thought critical-thinking outcomes; however, the intervention group verbalized more thoughtful clinical reasoning during the intervention. CONCLUSION: Despite an unsupported hypothesis, this study provides a forum for discussion in medical education. It took a sponsored tool in surgical education (WISE-MD™) and posed the toughest evaluation criteria of an educational intervention; does it affect the way we think? and not just what we learn, but how we learn it? The answer is significant and will require more resources before we arrive at a definitive answer.

The Family Medicine Curriculum Resource Project: implications for faculty development.

Faculty development implications related to implementing the Family Medicine Curriculum Resource (FMCR) Project provide an opportunity to look at the recommendations of the Society of Teachers of Family Medicine's federally funded Faculty Futures Initiative (FFI) and the recent Future of Family Medicine (FFM) project. Implications for faculty development include the importance of the clerkship setting, originally defined in 1991, with new features added in today's practice environment as outlined by the FFM and the changing assumptions in approaching faculty development. Previously, faculty development focused on teaching learners to master current knowledge. Now, faculty must teach learners how to master new competencies throughout their lives; learners need to learn how they and others learn now. Teaching must focus on how to learn in the future as well as what to learn for the present. Competence ("what individuals know or are able to do in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes") has become the focus of curriculum development efforts over the last few years and most appropriately serves as the focus of curriculum development in the FMCR Project. Implications for developing teachers and preceptors focus on the skills and circumstances required to teach and evaluate all types (cognitive, metacognitive, and affective) of competence. In the new culture, novel teaching methods will serve as the focus of faculty development in teaching and of educational ("best practices") research.

Medical Student Perceptions of the Learning Environment at the End of the First Year: A 28-Medical School Collaborative.

PURPOSE: Accreditation and professional organizations have recognized the importance of measuring medical students' perceptions of the learning environment, which influences well-being and professional competency development, to optimize professional development. This study was conducted to explore interactions between students' perceptions of the medical school learning environment, student demographic variables, and students' professional attributes of empathy, coping, tolerance of ambiguity, and patient-centeredness to provide ideas for improving the learning environment. METHOD: Twenty-eight medical schools at 38 campuses recruited 4,664 entering medical students to participate in the two-cohort longitudinal study (2010-2014 or 2011-2015). The authors employed chi-square tests and analysis of variance to examine the relationship between Medical School Learning Environment Survey (MSLES) scores and student characteristics. The authors used mixed-effects models with random school and campus effects to test the overall variances accounted for in MSLES scores at the end of the first year of medical school. RESULTS: Student attributes and demographic characteristics differed significantly across schools but accounted for only 2.2% of the total variance in MSLES scores. Medical school campus explained 15.6% of the variance in MSLES scores. CONCLUSIONS: At year's end, students' perceptions toward the learning environment, as reported on the MSLES, differed significantly according to the medical school campus where they trained. Further studies are needed to identify specific factors, such as grading policies, administrative support, and existence of learning communities, which may influence perceptions of the learning environment at various schools. Identifying such variables would assist schools in developing a positive learning environment.

Factors influencing preceptors' responses to medical errors: a factorial survey.

BACKGROUND: Preceptors must respond to trainees' medical errors, but little is known about what factors influence their responses. METHOD: A total of 115 primary care preceptors from 16 medical schools responded to two medical error vignettes involving a trainee. Nine trainee-related factors were randomly varied. Preceptors indicated whether they would discuss what led to the error, provide reassurance, share responsibility, express disappointment, and adjust their written evaluation of the trainee. RESULTS: Almost all preceptors would discuss what led to the error; relatively few would express disappointment. The trainee's prior history of errors, knowledge level relative to peers, receptivity to feedback, training level, emotional reaction, offering to apologize, and offering an excuse were predictive of preceptors' responses; gender and time-in-office were not. CONCLUSION: This study identified seven trainee-related factors as predictive of preceptors' responses to medical errors. More research is needed to identify other influential factors, and to improve teaching from medical errors.

Primary care renewal: regional faculty development and organizational change.

BACKGROUND: Many reports, including the Future of Family Medicine, have called for change in primary care, but few have defined, implemented, and evaluated mechanisms to address such change. The regional, interdisciplinary Primary Care Renewal Project was designed to address problems in primary care practice and teaching related to practice management, compensation, increasing responsibility for teaching, and faculty development. METHODS: Twelve northeastern US medical schools assembled a conference attended by teams of key stakeholders representing both clinical and educational missions. Teams developed and implemented an institutional plan to address identified needs. Outcome data was collected during, and for 1 year after, the conference. RESULTS: Findings demonstrate novel ways of improving learning experiences, coordinating and centralizing planning efforts, and addressing faculty needs. The magnitude of organizational change ranged from establishing new administrative units with significant institutional authority (eg, restructuring dean's office) to enhancing the strategic planning process and refining mission statements to reflect emphasis on primary care. CONCLUSIONS: A well-planned, regional interdisciplinary effort that fosters the development of concrete plans can be associated with significant change in medical education. A central theme emerged--that primary care medicine will survive only if institutions align their educational and clinical missions and foster system-wide change.

Community preceptors' views of their identities as teachers.

PURPOSE: Community physicians are increasingly being recruited to teach medical students and residents, yet there has been little research about how they think of themselves as teachers or what factors contribute to "teacher identity." Physicians who think of themselves as teachers may be more likely to enjoy teaching, to teach more, and to be recognized by students and other faculty as good teachers. Identifying factors that enhance teacher identity may be helpful for the recruitment and retention of high-quality community faculty. METHOD: Thirty-five experienced community preceptors were audiotaped in five structured focus groups in April 2001, answering a series of questions about their teacher identity. Responses were qualitatively analyzed for evidence of themes. RESULTS: "Feeling intrinsic satisfaction" was the most common theme that emerged from the tapes. Preceptors also identified that "having knowledge and skill about teaching" and "belonging to a group of teacher" enhanced their roles as teachers. "Being a physician means being a teacher," "feeling a responsibility to teach medicine," and "sharing clinical expertise" also emerged as important themes. Although a group of participants were interested in "receiving rewards for teaching," rewards did not need to be financial compensation. For some, genuine recognition for their efforts by the medical school, particularly in the form of faculty development opportunities, constituted reward and recognition for teaching. CONCLUSIONS: Community physicians described a variety of factors that contribute to their identity as teachers. Faculty development programs offer opportunities to strengthen teacher identity and foster relationships between teaching programs and community-based faculty.

Developing culturally competent community faculty: a model program.

The Liaison Committee on Medical Education recently set standards for cultural diversity training as part of the medical school curriculum. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first description of a faculty-development program designed to develop the capacity of the clinical faculty to integrate culture and advocacy education into clinical training. The paper describes the first two years of the development of an ongoing cultural competence curriculum that has been integrated into the training of community preceptors from 13 medical schools in New England and New York. The training, entitled"Teaching the Culture of the Community," consists of four 2.5-hour modules that include interactive lectures and small-group role-play exercises on cultural needs assessment, patient-centered interviewing, feedback on cultural issues and use of the community to enhance cultural understanding. The 137 participants in the first two years of the program (1999-00 and 2000-01) reported a high level of acceptance of the curriculum. In the second year, the program began to document participants' self-reported"intention to change" in relation to the cultural competence curriculum. Many participants reported plans to change aspects of their clinical care and their teaching practices. Intentions to change were most frequently expressed in the context of content on effective communication skills. In summary, cultural competency training has been successfully integrated into an existing faculty-development program for community-based preceptors.

Family medicine educators' perceptions of the future of faculty development.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Faculty development has been an important part of academic family medicine for 3 decades. However, few studies examine the effectiveness of various faculty development delivery methods. With little quantitative data from the literature with which to recommend future directions, this study examined key stakeholders'perceptions. METHODS: A total of 127 family medicine faculty participated in 14 different focus groups. Department chairs, full-time and part-time faculty, and volunteer preceptors responded to seven questions about delivery methods. RESULTS: Discussants emphasized that future faculty development methods must be proven effective, woven into the fabric of clinical practice, and deal with increasing time and financial pressures. Much discussion was related to the need for national and regional strategies allowing for emphasis on outcome evaluation, flexibility, and access. Web-based delivery methods and preceptor needs were emphasized. CONCLUSIONS: Study participants called for a more rigorous evidence-based approach to faculty development. A more systematic and stable approach could include the establishment of new federal criteria for funding projects that address different levels of development and implementation. For example, one set of review criteria would be applicable to systematic case-control studies of new interventions while another set would relate to dissemination studies of proven methodologies.

Transforming the culture of surgical education: promoting teacher identity through human factors training.

CONTEXT: Promoting a culture of teaching may encourage students to choose a surgical career. Teaching in a human factors (HF) curriculum, the nontechnical skills of surgery, is associated with surgeons' stronger identity as teachers and with clinical students' improved perception of surgery and satisfaction with the clerkship experience. OBJECTIVE: To describe the effects of an HF curriculum on teaching culture in surgery. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, AND INTERVENTION: Surgeons and educators developed an HF curriculum including communication, teamwork, and work-life balance. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Teacher identity, student interest in a surgical career, student perception of the HF curriculum, and teaching awards. RESULTS: Ninety-two of 123 faculty and residents in a single program (75% of total) completed a survey on teacher identity. Fifteen of the participants were teachers of HF. Teachers of HF scored higher than control participants on the total score for teacher identity (P < .001) and for subcategories of global teacher identity (P = .001), intrinsic satisfaction (P = .001), skills and knowledge (P = .006), belonging to a group of teachers (P < .001), feeling a responsibility to teach (P = .008), receiving rewards (P =.01), and HF (P = .02). Third-year clerks indicated that they were more likely to select surgery as their career after the clerkship and rated the curriculum higher when it was taught by surgeons than when taught by educators. Of the teaching awards presented to surgeons during HF years, 100% of those awarded to attending physicians and 80% of those awarded to residents went to teachers of HF. CONCLUSION: Curricular focus on HF can strengthen teacher identity, improve teacher evaluations, and promote surgery as a career choice.

Expert communication training for providers in community health centers.

BACKGROUND: Community health center (CHC) clinicians describe significant challenges in delivering care for populations with complex health needs. INTERVENTION: A three-workshop series was presented to 102 providers working in CHCs. Training focused on four areas identified through online needs assessment: challenging interactions; patient perspective; health literacy; and motivational interviewing. EVALUATION METHODS: A retrospective pre-post evaluation measured self-perceived change in content knowledge in all four areas. Participants documented commitments to change behaviors across workshops, which were analyzed for recurring themes. RESULTS: Paired t-tests documented improvement in all four content areas. Content analysis of commitments yielded four themes: empowering patients, structuring care, understanding patients, and reflecting purposefully. Of the sixty-eight percent of participants responding to post-workshop queries about their commitments (n=70), 94% report having fully implemented changes in practice behavior or planning to do so. CONCLUSIONS: Providers at CHCs benefit from opportunities to learn and reflect together about communication challenges in practice.

Promoting self-directed learning skills in residency: a case study in program development.

Self-directed learning (SDL) skills are essential for the formation and ongoing competence of today's physicians who work in the context of expanding scientific knowledge and changing health care systems. In 2007-2008, the authors developed a program to promote SDL in the Brown University Family Medicine Residency. Through an iterative process, the project team juggled learning theories (i.e., Knowles' SDL model, Collins' cognitive apprenticeship model, and Quirk's expertise development model) with curricular goals, instructional options, and local constraints to design a practical and theoretically robust intervention.The intervention that emerged from this process features a faculty physician serving as a learning coach who meets individually each month with all second-year residents to assist them in generating learning goals, reflecting on their learning experiences, and practicing evidence-based medicine (EBM) skills. An electronic portfolio serves as a documentation tool that supports reflection; residents record their goals and reflections in the portfolio, which also contains their formative assessments, procedure logs, and special projects. To address the hidden curriculum, the program designers took special care to avoid increasing faculty and resident workload and created a forum for discussion and group reflection. Program evaluation combines qualitative and quantitative methods, such as surveys of and interviews with residents and faculty, to assess changes in residents' SDL and EBM skills and in the program's educational culture. The authors use Kern and colleagues' six-step model for curriculum development to describe both the unfolding of this complex project and the choices that resulted in the current program design.