A phosphatase associated with metastasis of colorectal cancer.

To gain insights into the molecular basis for metastasis, we compared the global gene expression profile of metastatic colorectal cancer with that of primary cancers, benign colorectal tumors, and normal colorectal epithelium. Among the genes identified, the PRL-3 protein tyrosine phosphatase gene was of particular interest. It was expressed at high levels in each of 18 cancer metastases studied but at lower levels in nonmetastatic tumors and normal colorectal epithelium. In 3 of 12 metastases examined, multiple copies of the PRL-3 gene were found within a small amplicon located at chromosome 8q24.3. These data suggest that the PRL-3 gene is important for colorectal cancer metastasis and provide a new therapeutic target for these intractable lesions.

Secreted and cell surface genes expressed in benign and malignant colorectal tumors.

Serial analysis of gene expression was used to identify transcripts encoding secreted or cell surface proteins that were expressed in benign and malignant tumors of the colorectum. A total of 290,394 tags were analyzed from normal, adenomatous, and cancerous colonic epithelium. Of the 21,343 different transcripts observed, 957 were found to be differentially expressed between normal tissue and adenoma or between normal tissue and cancer. Forty-nine transcripts were elevated > or =20-fold in adenomas, 40 transcripts were elevated > or =20-fold in cancers, and 9 transcripts were elevated > or =20-fold in both. Products of six of these nine transcripts (TGFBI, LYS, RDP, MIC-1, REGA, and DEHL) were predicted to be secreted or to reside on the cell surface, and these were analyzed in more detail. The abnormal expression levels predicted by serial analysis of gene expression were confirmed by quantitative PCR analyses of each of these six genes. Moreover, the cell types responsible for the elevated expression were identified by in situ hybridization and by PCR analyses of epithelial cells immunoaffinity purified from primary tumors. This study extends knowledge of the differences in gene expression that underlie various stages of neoplasia and suggests specific diagnostic approaches that may be useful for the early detection of colorectal neoplasia.

Knock in of the AKT1 E17K mutation in human breast epithelial cells does not recapitulate oncogenic PIK3CA mutations.

An oncogenic mutation (G49A:E17K) in the AKT1 gene has been described recently in human breast, colon, and ovarian cancers. The low frequency of this mutation and perhaps other selective pressures have prevented the isolation of human cancer cell lines that harbor this mutation thereby limiting functional analysis. Here, we create a physiologic in vitro model to study the effects of this mutation by using somatic cell gene targeting using the nontumorigenic human breast epithelial cell line, MCF10A. Surprisingly, knock in of E17K into the AKT1 gene had minimal phenotypic consequences and importantly, did not recapitulate the biochemical and growth characteristics seen with somatic cell knock in of PIK3CA hotspot mutations. These results suggest that mutations in critical genes within the PI3-kinase (PI3K) pathway are not functionally equivalent, and that other cooperative genetic events may be necessary to achieve oncogenic PI3K pathway activation in cancers that contain the AKT1 E17K mutation.

Transcriptional regulation of N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase V by the src oncogene.

Transformation of baby hamster kidney fibroblasts by the Rous sarcoma virus causes a significant increase in the GlcNAcbeta(1, 6)Man-branched oligosaccharides by elevating the activity and mRNA transcript levels encoding N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase V (GlcNAc-T V). Elevated activity and mRNA levels could be inhibited by blocking cell proliferation with herbimycin A, demonstrating that Src kinase activity can regulate GlcNAc-T V expression. 5' RACE analysis was used to identify a 3-kilobase 5'-untranslated region from GlcNAc-T V mRNA and locate a transcriptional start site in a 25-kilobase pair GlcNAc-T V human genomic clone. A 6-kilobase pair fragment of the 5' region of the gene contained AP-1 and PEA3/Ets binding elements and, when co-transfected with a src expression plasmid into HepG2 cells, conferred src-stimulated transcriptional enhancement upon a luciferase reporter gene. This stimulation by src could be antagonized by co-transfection with a dominant-negative mutant of the Raf kinase, suggesting the involvement of Ets transcription factors in the regulation of GlcNAc-T V gene expression. The src-responsive element was localized by 5' deletion analysis to a 250-base pair region containing two overlapping Ets sites. src stimulation of transcription from this region was inhibited by co-transfection with a dominant-negative mutant of Ets-2, demonstrating that the effects of the src kinase on GlcNAc-T V expression are dependent on Ets.

Regulation of N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase V and Asn-linked oligosaccharide beta(1,6) branching by a growth factor signaling pathway and effects on cell adhesion and metastatic potential.

Recent evidence demonstrates that the changes in the size of N-linked oligosaccharides that correlate with cell transformation and tumorigenicity are due at least in part to the regulation of expression of a glycosyltransferase involved in the branching of N-linked structures, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase V or GlcNAc-T V. Studies have shown that the increases in GlcNAc-T V expression after oncogenic transformation are most likely caused by direct effects on the GlcNAc-T V promoter by the Ets family of transcriptional activators, which are up-regulated by a cellular proliferation signaling pathway. This pathway begins with growth factor receptors that activate tyrosine kinases at the cell surface and proceeds through src, ras, and raf. Additional evidence for the association between cellular proliferation and GlcNAc-T V expression will be presented, as well as a discussion of the effects of beta(1,6) branching on several of the phenotypes of oncogenically transformed cells, including metastatic potential.

Cloning and expression of a Xenopus laevis oocyte lectin and characterization of its mRNA levels during early development.

cDNA clones encoding a soluble, calcium-dependent, melibiose-binding lectin from Xenopus laevis oocytes have been isolated, characterized, and expressed in bacteria. This lectin has been shown by others to be localized in oocyte cortical granules where it ultimately is released and participates in the formation of the fertilization envelope. A lectin with similar specificity has been purified by others from blastula and immunolocalized to specific locations in developing embryos, which suggests it may also function after fertilization in regulating cell adhesion and migration. We have used melibiose affinity chromatography to isolate the oocyte lectin (monomer molecular masses of about 45 and 43 kDa) and shown that after exhaustive treatment with N-glycanase, only one major protein band at 35 kDa was observed, suggesting that a single polypeptide with variable N-linked glycosylation is expressed in the oocyte. After obtaining internal peptide sequences, a PCR-based cloning approach allowed the isolation of full length cDNAs from an ovary lambda gt11 library encoding a protein of 313 amino acids with three potential N-linked oligosaccharide sites. Although this lectin, termed XL35, requires calcium ions for oligosaccharide binding, its sequence does not contain the sequence motif defined for "C-type" lectins. A 6-Histagged from of the lectin was expressed in E. coli and purified on a Ni(2+)-NTA column from bacterial extracts. The recombinant lectin was active using an agglutination assay, and this activity was inhibitable by EDTA and melibiose, properties exhibited by the native lectin. Southern blot analysis revealed a single hybridizing band, arguing against the existence of a multigene family. Northern blot analysis demonstrated that the lectin mRNA is expressed in oocytes and remains at relatively high levels through late gastrulae, continuing until tadpole stages. The persistence of the lectin mRNA, coupled with results from earlier studies, strongly suggests that XL35 is zygotically expressed and functions during morphogenesis.

Human Smad3 and Smad4 are sequence-specific transcription activators.

Mounting evidence indicates that Smad proteins are required for TGF beta signaling, but the way(s) in which Smad proteins propagate this signal is unclear. We found that two human Smad proteins (Smad3 and Smad4) could specifically recognize an identical 8 bp palindromic sequences (GTCTAGAC). Tandem repeats of this palindrome conferred striking TGF beta responsiveness to a minimal promoter. This responsiveness was abrogated by targeted deletion of the cellular Smad4 gene. These results define a novel biochemical property of Smad proteins that is likely to play a direct role in the biologic responses to TGF beta and related ligands.

Isolation, characterization, and expression of a cDNA encoding N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase V.

A cDNA clone for the complete coding sequence for alpha-1,3(6)-mannosylglycoprotein beta-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase V (GlcNAc-T V, EC 2.4.1.155) was isolated and expressed in COS-7 cells. Degenerate oligonucleotide primers for polymerase chain reaction were synthesized based on the amino acid sequence of three tryptic peptides isolated from affinity-purified GlcNAc-T V. Polymerase chain reaction amplimers were isolated from rat and mouse mRNA. A cDNA-encoding full-length enzyme was isolated from a rat 1 cell (EJ-ras-transformed) library and sequenced. Transient expression of this clone in COS-7 cells, followed by enzymatic activity assays, demonstrated that this cDNA sequence encodes GlcNAc-T V. Northern analysis of rat kidney mRNA revealed a single band corresponding to a length of about 7 kilobases. Sequence analysis of the cDNA clone demonstrated an open reading frame that encoded a type II membrane protein of 740 amino acids.

Targeted deletion of Smad4 shows it is required for transforming growth factor beta and activin signaling in colorectal cancer cells.

Smad4 (DPC4) is a candidate tumor suppressor gene that has been hypothesized to be critical for transmitting signals from transforming growth factor (TGF) beta and related ligands. To directly test this hypothesis, the Smad4 gene was deleted through homologous recombination in human colorectal cancer cells. This deletion abrogated signaling from TGF-beta, as well as from the TGF-beta family member activin. These results provide unequivocal evidence that mutational inactivation of Smad4 causes TGF-beta unresponsiveness and provide a basis for understanding the physiologic role of this gene in tumorigenesis.