Tinea capitis: An update.

Tinea capitis is an important superficial infection and affects children globally. A literature review was conducted to identify recent findings and the current understanding of this fungal infection. Here, we highlight updates on important aspects of tinea capitis including advances in dermatophyte detection and diagnosis and comparing these new methods to more traditional techniques. Additionally, aspects of treating tinea capitis are discussed, including the importance of mycological confirmation and current means of treatment, and the treatment of asymptomatic carriers are reviewed. This review also examines the subject of laboratory monitoring of patients undergoing treatment with systemic antifungals; we discuss the opinions of prominent researchers and currently accepted guidelines. Lastly, we provide answers to several common questions that practitioners may encounter when treating a child with tinea capitis.

Severe acne and its variants: Exploring its natural history and heritability.

BACKGROUND: Acne vulgaris varies in clinical severity, from minimal comedonal disease to severe hemorrhagic and ulcerative lesions with scarring. While a family history confers a higher risk for developing acne, the correlation between heritability and clinical severity remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: To examine the natural history and heritability of severe acne with scarring in patients undergoing isotretinoin therapy. METHODS: A total of 101 subjects with severe acne with scarring and its variants, including acne conglobata and acne fulminans, were enrolled. All subjects and adult family members underwent an interview regarding their acne, and a corresponding "historical" Investigator's Global Assessment (hIGA) score (0 = clear, 1 = almost clear, 2 = mild, 3 = moderate, 4 = severe, 5 = very severe) was assigned. Study assessors performed an "examination" Investigator's Global Assessment (eIGA) based on the clinical examination of each subject (0 = clear, 1 = almost clear, 2 = mild, 3 = moderate, 4 = severe, 5 = very severe). A detailed family history and pedigree were documented. RESULTS: Most subjects were Caucasian (44.5%) and male (79.2%) who had previously used doxycycline and/or minocycline (86.1%). The mean eIGA and hIGA scores were 2.7 and 4.4, respectively. 37.2% of subjects had one first-degree relative with a history of moderate or severe acne with scarring; of note, of the patients with hemorrhagic disease, 30% had at least one parent with moderate or severe acne. CONCLUSIONS: Severe forms of acne often "cluster" in families, underscoring the heritable nature of acne and the prognostic value of a family history of moderate or severe disease.

A randomized, controlled trial of oral propranolol in infantile hemangioma.

BACKGROUND: Oral propranolol has been used to treat complicated infantile hemangiomas, although data from randomized, controlled trials to inform its use are limited. METHODS: We performed a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, adaptive, phase 2-3 trial assessing the efficacy and safety of a pediatric-specific oral propranolol solution in infants 1 to 5 months of age with proliferating infantile hemangioma requiring systemic therapy. Infants were randomly assigned to receive placebo or one of four propranolol regimens (1 or 3 mg of propranolol base per kilogram of body weight per day for 3 or 6 months). A preplanned interim analysis was conducted to identify the regimen to study for the final efficacy analysis. The primary end point was success (complete or nearly complete resolution of the target hemangioma) or failure of trial treatment at week 24, as assessed by independent, centralized, blinded evaluations of standardized photographs. RESULTS: Of 460 infants who underwent randomization, 456 received treatment. On the basis of an interim analysis of the first 188 patients who completed 24 weeks of trial treatment, the regimen of 3 mg of propranolol per kilogram per day for 6 months was selected for the final efficacy analysis. The frequency of successful treatment was higher with this regimen than with placebo (60% vs. 4%, P<0.001). A total of 88% of patients who received the selected propranolol regimen showed improvement by week 5, versus 5% of patients who received placebo. A total of 10% of patients in whom treatment with propranolol was successful required systemic retreatment during follow-up. Known adverse events associated with propranolol (hypoglycemia, hypotension, bradycardia, and bronchospasm) occurred infrequently, with no significant difference in frequency between the placebo group and the groups receiving propranolol. CONCLUSIONS: This trial showed that propranolol was effective at a dose of 3 mg per kilogram per day for 6 months in the treatment of infantile hemangioma. (Funded by Pierre Fabre Dermatologie; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01056341.).

Hand-foot-skin reaction related to use of the multikinase inhibitor sorafenib and hard orthotics.

Hand-foot-skin reaction is a distinct clinical condition arising in association with the use of multikinase inhibitors, including sorafenib. Because multikinase inhibitors are increasingly being used in children with cancer, recognition of this previously unfamiliar condition is of importance to pediatric dermatologists. We describe the diagnosis and successful treatment of a case of hand-foot-skin reaction in a child taking sorafenib for an unresectable desmoid tumor.

Pediatric psoriasis: Evolving perspectives.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Childhood-onset psoriasis is a common skin disorder that has recently received increasing attention, particularly because of its significant medical, social, financial, and psychological burdens and its associated comorbidities. With limited data available and lack of standardized management guidelines for pediatric psoriasis, an expert panel desired to provide an updated critical overview and practical guidance for management of the affected population. METHODS: A panel of pediatric dermatologists with extensive experience in pediatric psoriasis defined and prioritized a core set of topics, performed an English-language literature review, prepared critical evaluations and presentations of topic areas, and carried out a consensus meeting and follow-up consensus manuscript. RESULTS: The summation of evolving perspectives in pediatric psoriasis includes epidemiology and natural history of the disease, precipitating factors and comorbidities, quality of life and burden of disease, clinical features and disease presentation, differential diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment, including topical, photo, and systemic therapies. CONCLUSION: Pediatric psoriasis is an important immune-mediated inflammatory skin disease with potential for significant impact on affected individuals and their caregivers. Current state-of-the-art care is based primarily on experience and expert consensus, but pediatric data are accumulating and therapeutic options are rapidly evolving.

Evidence-based recommendations for the management of acne fulminans and its variants.

BACKGROUND: Acne fulminans (AF) is a severe variant of inflammatory acne. It typically manifests as an explosive worsening and ulceration of skin lesions, and can be associated with systemic symptoms. However, there is a paucity of evidence-based information and no clear guidelines concerning the classification and treatment of AF. OBJECTIVE: To better define the spectrum of AF and its variants, devise optimal therapeutic approaches, and identify areas of future research. METHODS: A panel of physicians with expertise in severe acne vulgaris was convened after a comprehensive literature review of severe acne variants. Priority topics were reviewed and presented by each panelist at a 5-hour conference. Following review of the audiotape and scribed notes from the conference, surveys were utilized to address points of controversy and to clarify consensus recommendations. RESULTS: Appropriate clinical case presentations and consensus survey questions were utilized to create final recommendations based on both the literature and the expert consensus. LIMITATIONS: Limited evidenced-based data and prospective studies in the literature concerning the treatment of AF is available. CONCLUSION: These guidelines better characterize AF and provide health care practitioners approaches to the classification, treatment, and prevention of AF and its variants.

Pediatric Onychomycosis: The Emerging Role of Topical Therapy.

Fungal infection of the nails is an increasingly recognized disease in infants and children. However, it can be difficult to distinguish clinically from other nail dystrophies. In addition, many mistakenly believe that onychomycosis does not occur in childhood. Under-recognition of this infectious disorder therefore occurs. Although many consider "nail fungus" a trivial cosmetic concern, it can lead to discomfort, risk of secondary infection, and a more significant health threat in immunocompromised or diabetic individuals. It should always be considered in the differential diagnosis of nail plate disorders in children as it is one of the more common causes.

Here we review the latest data on prevalence of the disease, reasons for its relatively low incidence compared with adults, and important predisposing factors. It is important to confirm the clinical diagnosis of onychomycosis in children, and affected individuals should be examined for concomitant tinea pedis. As familial disease often occurs, it is important to check parents and siblings as well for onychomycosis and tinea pedis.

Treatment of onychomycosis is challenging, and recurrence appears to be more common in children than in adults. Prolonged systemic antifungal therapy is commonly required. However, pediatric practitioners and parents alike hesitate when asked to treat young children with a systemic drug that requires laboratory monitoring and can have systemic toxicities. Due to their thinner, faster-growing nails, children are theoretically more likely to respond to topical monotherapy than adults, and therefore good candidates for topical antifungal therapy.

The clinical data on the use of topical antifungals in pediatric onychomycosis is scarce. We review data that exist from case reports and small clinical trials. New topical antifungals are now available that afford better nail penetration and additional delivery routes to the site of infection. Pediatric trials are now on-going, and should clarify the usefulness of these agents in children.

Infantile hemangiomas, complications and treatments.

Infantile hemangiomas (IHs) are the most common vascular tumors of infancy. While the majority regress without the need for intervention, approximately 10%, often site dependent, can cause serious complications and require treatment. IH complications can be categorized as life threatening, obstructive, ulcerative or disfiguring. Life threatening complications include airway and hepatic IHs. Functional complications obstructing vital structures or impairing function include periocular, nasal, labial, parotid, auricular, and breast IHs. Local complications arise from ulceration or those in cosmetically sensitive areas. Therapeutic options for complicated IHs include pharmacologic (topical or systemic), surgical, or laser interventions. Topical agents are best employed for small, superficial, and localized IHs; while systemic therapy is reserved for larger IHs and those with more aggressive growth characteristics with propranolol as first-line therapy.

Onychomycosis: epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment in a changing landscape.

Onychomycosis is an often overlooked and/or undertreated disease. This may be in part due to an under appreciation among both physicians and patients of its impact on quality of life and the potential for significant complications, from tinea corporis and cruris, to bacterial superinfection. Some health care providers are unaware of the effective low-risk treatments currently available. Changing demographic characteristics such as the relative aging of the population; the increasing prevalence of diabetes and peripheral vascular disease, and widespread iatrogenic immunosuppression; and changes in lifestyle practices such as earlier and greater participation in sports, are likely to lead to an increased prevalence of onychomycosis in both adults and children. Two topical onychomycosis treatments, efinaconazole 10% solution, and tavaborole 5% solution were recently approved by the FDA. This article reviews the state of knowledge and describes, briefly, these new treatment options.

Onychoheterotopia Due to a Traumatically Transplanted Nail in a Child.

Onychoheterotopia is a rare condition characterized by ectopic nail tissue growth. It is a digital mass that is commonly misdiagnosed. We describe a 6-year-old girl who presented with onychoheterotopia after trauma to the digit. Her onychoheterotopia was incorrectly diagnosed as a common wart. It is important to include onychoheterotopia in the differential diagnosis of digital masses, especially in the setting of previous traumatic injury.

Understanding the pediatric dermatology workforce shortage: mentoring matters.

OBJECTIVES: To target pediatric dermatologists directly in order to evaluate their current demographics and the most important motivating factors that influenced their career choice. Pediatric dermatology is one of the pediatric subspecialties with an inadequate supply to meet current patient needs. STUDY DESIGN: A survey was designed to evaluate the training pathway, employment status, participation in teaching, and clinical practice characteristics of pediatric dermatologists. The survey was administered to attendants of the 2010 Society for Pediatric Dermatology annual meeting. Any remaining board certified pediatric dermatologists who had not previously responded were queried via Survey Monkey. RESULTS: There was a 71% response rate. The majority chose a career in pediatric dermatology early, often prior to starting a dermatology residency. The vast majority of respondents noted mentorship as the most important influence on their decision to pursue a career in pediatric dermatology. The most common obstacles cited by respondents were financial hardship and resistance of some dermatology programs to accept applicants previously trained in pediatrics. CONCLUSIONS: Our survey provides evidence to support the importance of early exposure to the field and, most importantly, to committed pediatric dermatologists who can serve as mentors. This information may be helpful in approaching solutions to the workforce shortage in the field of pediatric dermatology.

A prospective study of cutaneous findings in newborns in the United States: correlation with race, ethnicity, and gestational status using updated classification and nomenclature.

OBJECTIVE: To provide incidence data based on ethnicity, prematurity, and body site for vascular, pigmented, and other common congenital cutaneous findings; to compare these results with previously published prospective studies; and to define updated nomenclature, classification, clinical course, and prognostic factors for the pediatric practitioner to promote a better understanding of benign versus more worrisome birthmarks. STUDY DESIGN: This prospective study enrolled 594 infants in San Diego, California. Cutaneous examination was performed by pediatric dermatologists in the first 48 hours of life, with subsequent longitudinal contact via telephone, and repeat evaluations if any new lesions were reported by parents. Incidence rates were calculated by ethnicity and prematurity status. RESULTS: The most common vascular lesion was nevus simplex (83%), followed by infantile hemangioma (4.5% by age 3 months), capillary malformation (0.3%), and rapidly involuting congenital hemangioma (0.3%). Pigmented lesions seen at birth included dermal melanocytosis (20%), congenital melanocytic nevi (2.4%), and café au lait macules (2%). Other common skin findings were erythema toxicum neonatorum (7%), milia (8%), and sebaceous gland hyperplasia (42.6%). CONCLUSION: This study of congenital cutaneous lesions, using current nomenclature and data acquired by pediatric cutaneous lesion experts, provides data regarding the role of race and ethnicity in the incidence of birthmarks, and provides valid data on the prevalence of infantile hemangioma.

Pediatric "STUMP" lesions: evaluation and management of difficult atypical Spitzoid lesions in children.

Spitz nevi represent a distinct type of melanocytic nevi more commonly seen in childhood. Although typically benign, a subset of Spitz lesions raise concern and create a diagnostic dilemma as a result of confusing histology that involves characteristics of classic Spitz nevi intermixed with features of cutaneous melanoma. Such atypical Spitz lesions, or Spitzoid tumors of uncertain malignant potential, are difficult to classify and their biologic potential is uncertain. Nonetheless, these are critical tasks for both prognosis and clinical management. New tools, such as immunohistochemical stains, comparative genomic hybridization, and fluorescence in situ hybridization, have been used to provide further insight into these controversial lesions and to aid in their evaluation. In this review, we present our experience managing 6 cases of Spitzoid tumor of uncertain malignant potential and discuss the potential use of various diagnostic modalities, including sentinel lymph node biopsy, immunostaining, and molecular analysis.

Multicentric infantile hemangiopericytoma: case report and review of the literature.

Hemangiopericytomas are rare tumors in which outcome varies with age of onset. Those developing in adults and older children tend to be aggressive with a poor prognosis. However, infantile hemangiopericytomas often behave in a more benign manner. Recent findings suggest aggressive lesions may be histogenetically distinct. Multicentric disease is exceptionally rare, but tends to occur in infants and poses a therapeutic challenge. We present a case with extensive cutaneous and intracranial involvement, which resolved spontaneously. Tumor behavior is a key consideration in management, with careful observation recommended in uncomplicated cases and intervention indicated if more aggressive growth or spread occurs.

Children with atopic dermatitis appear less likely to be infected with community acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: the San Diego experience.

Given the increasing rate of community-acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections in the population, such infections might be concurrently increasing in patients with atopic dermatitis. This study assessed current and prior rates of community-acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infections in children with atopic dermatitis compared to the general pediatric population. Other antibiotic sensitivity and resistance patterns, including clindamycin-inducible resistance, were also identified. Retrospective study of all skin and soft tissue isolates were positive for Staphylococcus aureus during two distinct 1-year periods, obtained by the outpatient services and the emergency department at Rady Children's Hospital, the major regional pediatric health center in San Diego, California. Of the Staphylococcus aureus isolates obtained from January to December 2000, none from atopic dermatitis patients were methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus, while 4.2% of those obtained from the general outpatient pediatric population showed methicillin resistance. In the period from June 2007 to May 2008, 11 of 78 isolates (14.1%) from children with atopic dermatitis were methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This was significantly lower than the rate of increase noted in the general pediatric population (658 of 1482, or 44.4%, in 2007/2008, p < 0.05). Clindamycin-inducible resistance was noted in 1.9% of the isolates in the general population; all six tested isolates from atopic patients lacked clindamycin-inducible resistance. In this study, children with atopic dermatitis had a much lower rate of community-acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection compared to the general outpatient pediatric population. Clindamycin-inducible resistance was very low in both groups.

Terbinafine hydrochloride oral granules versus oral griseofulvin suspension in children with tinea capitis: results of two randomized, investigator-blinded, multicenter, international, controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: Although griseofulvin is currently considered the primary antifungal agent used to treat tinea capitis in many countries, increasingly higher doses and longer durations of treatment are becoming necessary to achieve effective treatment. Alternative antifungal therapies with shorter/simpler treatment regimens may be important to develop for this indication. OBJECTIVE: To compare the efficacy and safety of a new pediatric formulation of terbinafine hydrochloride oral granules with griseofulvin oral suspension in the treatment of tinea capitis. METHOD: Children (4-12 years of age) with clinically diagnosed and potassium hydroxide microscopy-confirmed tinea capitis were randomized in two identical studies (trial 1, trial 2) to once-daily treatment with terbinafine (5-8 mg/kg; n = 1040) or griseofulvin administered per label (10-20 mg/kg; n = 509) for a period of 6 weeks followed by 4 weeks of follow-up. End-of-study complete cure (negative fungal culture and microscopy with Total Signs and Symptoms Score [TSSS] = 0), and mycologic (negative culture and microscopy) and clinical cure (TSSS = 0) were primary and secondary efficacy variables, respectively. Efficacy analysis was based on pooled data using modified intent-to-treat population (those who received at least one dose of study drug and had positive baseline fungal culture, N = 1286). Safety assessments included monitoring of the frequency and severity of adverse events (AEs). RESULTS: Rates of complete cure and mycologic cure were significantly higher for terbinafine than for griseofulvin (45.1% vs 39.2% and 61.5% vs 55.5%, respectively; P < .05). A majority (86.7%) of patients received griseofulvin, 10 to 19.9 mg/kg per day; complete cure rate was not found to be higher among patients who received griseofulvin more than 20 mg/kg per day compared with those who received less than 20 mg/kg per day. Complete cure rate was statistically significantly greater for terbinafine compared to griseofulvin in trial 1 (46.23% vs 34.01%) but not in trial 2 (43.99% vs 43.46%). On the basis of pooled data, clinical cure was higher for terbinafine than for griseofulvin, but the difference was not found to be statistically significant (P = .10). Subgroup analyses revealed that terbinafine was significantly better than griseofulvin for all cure rates--mycologic, clinical, and complete--among patients with Trichophyton tonsurans but not Microsporum canis (P < .001). For M. canis, mycologic and clinical cure rates were significantly better with griseofulvin than with terbinafine (P < .05). Approximately 50% of patients in each group reported an AE; almost all were mild or moderate in severity. Nasopharyngitis, headache, and pyrexia were most common in both groups. There were no drug-related serious AEs, no deaths, and no significant effects on weight or laboratory parameters, including liver transaminases. LIMITATIONS: In retrospect, a difference in the distribution of infecting microorganisms between the two trials was a limitation. Stringent adherence to griseofulvin doses recommended by prescribing information but smaller than those used in current clinical practice, and exclusion of adjuvant therapies such as shampoos or topical agents, which are routinely used in practice, are other limitations. CONCLUSIONS: Data from this largest pediatric trial of terbinafine to date indicate that terbinafine is efficacious and well tolerated in the treatment of tinea capitis. Terbinafine is an effective alternative to griseofulvin against T. tonsurans tinea capitis.

Acne through the ages: case-based observations through childhood and adolescence.

Acne vulgaris is a common disorder that affects more than 17 million individuals in the United States. Knowledge of the disease is an important part of clinical practice, particularly for the pediatric practitioner. Contrary to common belief, acne is not a disease limited to adolescents and young adults but can occur at any stage of life. This article is a case-based review of acne during childhood and adolescence. Workup is based on age and concurrent physical findings, whereas therapy depends on the type of skin lesions along with patient characteristics and preferences.

Dietary Supplements, Isotretinoin, and Liver Toxicity in Adolescents: A Retrospective Case Series.

Isotretinoin is the most effective acne therapy available, but has the potential for a number of adverse side effects, including transaminitis. The iPLEDGE isotretinoin program recommends avoiding some herbals and supplements due to potential side effects. However, little is known about the effects of protein supplements on the liver, particularly in patients taking isotretinoin. We designed a retrospective chart review to evaluate the symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of patients on or preparing to take isotretinoin therapy who were concurrently ingesting protein or herbal supplementation and who developed transaminitis. In 100% (8/8) of cases, dietary supplementation was determined to be at least a possible cause of elevated liver transaminases. In 75% (6/8) of cases, dietary supplement appears to be the most likely cause at some point in their evaluation. Most of our patients' elevations in aspartate aminotransferase and/or alanine aminotransferase were likely caused by supplementation with protein, creatine, or herbal extracts, rather than prescribed isotretinoin or tetracycline antibiotics for acne. Hence, dietary supplementation may cause liver function abnormalities. As supplement usage appears common in teenagers, clinicians should consider counseling their patients to avoid these products, particularly when prescribing known hepatotoxic drugs.

Infantile Hemangiomas: An Updated Review on Risk Factors, Pathogenesis, and Treatment.

Infantile hemangiomas (IHs) are the most common vascular tumors in infants, appearing in early infancy and ultimately regressing with time. Clinical presentation may vary, with a minority of lesions causing impairment of vital function (e.g., respiratory or visual obstruction), permanent scarring, and/or disfigurement. The pathogenesis of IH is complex and poorly understood. Risk factors implicated in their development include preterm birth and placental anomalies. IH presents a myriad of clinical challenges, including correct diagnosis and whether or not to pursue treatment. This article is a review of the current literature regarding pathogenesis, clinical presentation, treatment, and prognosis of IH. Birth Defects Research 109:809-815, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.