Regioselective Synthesis of Highly Functionalized 2H-Pyrroles via Dearomative Chlorination of 1H-Pyrroles.

An efficient protocol was developed for the synthesis of highly functionalized 2H-pyrroles. This synthetic approach involves the in situ generation of highly reactive 2,5-dichloro-substituted 2H-pyrroles through dearomative chlorination of the corresponding 1H-pyrroles. The resulting reaction mixture is then treated with various amines, leading to the formation of 2,5-diaminated 2H-pyrroles. Subsequent nucleophilic substitution of fluorine with different N-, O-, and S-nucleophiles allows us to introduce additional functionality into a 2H-pyrrole core. The overall outcome of this reaction sequence is the triple nucleophilic modification of pyrroles. All steps of the sequence were found to be highly efficient, regioselective in the preparation of desired di- and trisubstituted derivatives in up to 96% overall yield. In addition, the computational study of this reaction sequence was carried out using density functional theory (DFT). The results of calculations are in perfect agreement with experimental observations.

Sequential Modification of Pyrrole Ring with up to Three Different Nucleophiles.

An umpolung strategy was used for the preparation of highly functionalized 3-pyrrolin-2-ones. This approach involves dearomative double chlorination of 1H-pyrroles to form highly reactive dichloro-substituted 2H-pyrroles. The resulting intermediate reacts selectively with wet alcohols to form the corresponding alkoxy-substituted 3-pyrrolin-2-ones via double nucleophilic substitution in up to 99% yield. The subsequent reaction with different N-, O-, and S-nucleophiles opens access to highly functionalized pyrrolinones bearing additional functionality. The overall outcome of the reported sequence is step-by-step nucleophilic modification of pyrroles with three different nucleophiles. All steps were found to be highly efficient and 100% regioselective. This transformation proceeds under mild conditions and does not require any catalyst to give final products in very high yields. The obtained experimental results are in perfect agreement with the data obtained by theoretical investigation of these reactions.

Barton-Zard Reaction of ß-Fluoro-ß-nitrostyrenes─a Selective Route to Functionalized 4-Fluoropyrroles.

The Barton-Zard reaction of ß-fluoro-ß-nitrostyrenes with ethyl α-isocyanoacetate was studied. The reaction was found to proceed in a highly chemoselective manner to form preferably 4-fluoropyrroles in up to 77% yield. The corresponding 4-nitrosubstituted pyrroles are formed as minor products of the reaction. The broad scope of ß-fluoro-ß-nitrostyrenes was demonstrated in the preparation of a variety of fluorinated pyrroles. The obtained experimental results are in perfect agreement with the data obtained by theoretical investigation of this reaction. The subsequent study of synthetic utility of monofluorinated pyrroles was performed to open a way for the development of a variety of functionalized pyrrole derivatives.

Acid-Switchable Synthesis of Trifluoromethylated Triazoles and Isoxazoles via Reaction of CF3-Ynones with NaN3: DFT Study of the Reaction Mechanism.

A detailed study of the reaction of CF3-ynones with NaN3 was performed. It was found that the reaction permits the selective synthesis of either 4-trifluoroacetyltriazoles or 5-CF3-isoxazoles. The chemoselectivity of the reaction was switchable via acid catalysis. The reaction of CF3-ynones with NaN3 in EtOH produced high yields of 4-trifluoroacetyltriazoles. In contrast, the formation of 5-CF3-isoxazoles was observed under catalysis by acids. This acid-switchable procedure can be performed at sub-gram scale. The possible reaction mechanism was supported by DFT calculations. The synthetic utility of the prepared 4-trifluoroacetyltriazoles was demonstrated.

DFT Investigation of the η6 ⇌ η6-Inter-ring Haptotropic Rearrangement of the Group 8 Metals Complexes [(graphene)MCp]+ (M = Fe, Ru, Os).

Metalcyclopentadienyl complexes (MCp)+ (M = Fe, Ru, Os) bound to the large polyaromatic hydrogenated hydrocarbon (PAH) C96H24 used as a model for pristine graphene have been studied using a density functional theory (DFT) generalized gradient approximation (PBE functional) to reveal their structural features and dynamic behavior. The inter-ring haptotropic rearrangements (IRHRs) for these complexes were shown to occur via two transition states and one intermediate. The energy barriers of the η6 ⇌ η6 IRHRs of the (MCp)+ unit were found to be 30, 27, and 29 kcal/mol for M = Fe, Ru, and Os, respectively. These values are significantly lower than the values found previously for smaller PAHs. Both polar and nonpolar solvents were found not to affect significantly the energy barrier heights. Investigated transition metal complexes could be used in general as catalysts in the design of novel derivatives or materials with promising properties. Metalcyclopentadienyl complexes (MCp)+ of PAHs show catalytic properties mainly due to their structural details as well as their important characteristic of inter-ring haptotropic rearrangement. IRHRs take place usually by intramolecular mechanisms. During IRHRs, the MLn organometallic groups (OMGs) undergo shifting along the PAH plane and could coordinate additional reagents, which is important for catalysis. Large PAHs such as graphene, fullerenes, and nanotubes possess intrinsic anticancer activity, and numerous arene complexes of Ru and Os have been proven to have anticancer properties as well. We suppose that coordinating Ru or Os to very large PAHs could synergistically increase the anticancer activity of resulting complexes.

Making endo-cyclizations favorable again: a conceptually new synthetic approach to benzotriazoles via azide group directed lithiation/cyclization of 2-azidoaryl bromides.

Although benzotriazoles are important and ubiquitous, currently there is only one conceptual approach to their synthesis: bridging the two ortho-amino groups with an electrophilic nitrogen atom. Herein, we disclose a new practical alternative - the endo-cyclization of 2-azidoaryl lithiums obtained in situ from 2-azido-aryl bromides. The scope of the reaction is illustrated using twenty-four examples with a variety of alkyl, alkoxy, perfluoroalkyl, and halogen substituents. We found that the directing effect of the azide group allows selective metal-halogen exchange in aryl azides containing several bromine atoms. Furthermore, (2-bromophenyl)diazomethane undergoes similar cyclization to give an indazole. Thus, cyclizations of aryl lithiums containing an ortho-X = Y = Z group emerge as a new general approach for the synthesis of aromatic heterocycles. DFT computations suggested that the observed endo-selectivity applies to the anionic cyclizations of other functionalities that undergo "1,1-additions" (i.e., azides, diazo compounds, and isonitriles). In contrast, cyclizations with the heteroatomic functionalities that follow the "1,2-addition" pattern (cyanates, thiocyanates, isocyanates, isothiocyanates, and nitriles) prefer the exo-cyclization path. Hence, such reactions expand the current understanding of stereoelectronic factors in anionic cyclizations.

A general method of Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling of 4- and 5-halo-1,2,3-triazoles in water.

A general method of the synthesis of 1,4,5-trisubstituted-1,2,3-triazoles by Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling from 4- and 5-halo-1,2,3-triazoles is reported. The reaction is mediated by an expanded-ring N-heterocyclic carbene palladium complex in water. The developed reaction protocol meets the requirements of "green chemistry". Cross-coupling of 4- and 5-chlorotriazoles is reported for the first time.

Pursuing reliable thermal analysis techniques for energetic materials: decomposition kinetics and thermal stability of dihydroxylammonium 5,5'-bistetrazole-1,1'-diolate (TKX-50).

Thermal decomposition of a novel promising high-performance explosive dihydroxylammonium 5,5'-bistetrazole-1,1'-diolate (TKX-50) was studied using a number of thermal analysis techniques (thermogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetry, and accelerating rate calorimetry, ARC). To obtain more comprehensive insight into the kinetics and mechanism of TKX-50 decomposition, a variety of complementary thermoanalytical experiments were performed under various conditions. Non-isothermal and isothermal kinetics were obtained at both atmospheric and low (up to 0.3 Torr) pressures. The gas products of thermolysis were detected in situ using IR spectroscopy, and the structure of solid-state decomposition products was determined by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. Diammonium 5,5'-bistetrazole-1,1'-diolate (ABTOX) was directly identified to be the most important intermediate of the decomposition process. The important role of bistetrazole diol (BTO) in the mechanism of TKX-50 decomposition was also rationalized by thermolysis experiments with mixtures of TKX-50 and BTO. Several widely used thermoanalytical data processing techniques (Kissinger, isoconversional, formal kinetic approaches, etc.) were independently benchmarked against the ARC data, which are more germane to the real storage and application conditions of energetic materials. Our study revealed that none of the Arrhenius parameters reported before can properly describe the complex two-stage decomposition process of TKX-50. In contrast, we showed the superior performance of the isoconversional methods combined with isothermal measurements, which yielded the most reliable kinetic parameters of TKX-50 thermolysis. In contrast with the existing reports, the thermal stability of TKX-50 was determined in the ARC experiments to be lower than that of hexogen, but close to that of hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane (CL-20).

Expanded-ring N-heterocyclic carbenes efficiently stabilize gold(I) cations, leading to high activity in π-acid-catalyzed cyclizations.

A series of six- and seven-membered expanded-ring N-heterocyclic carbene (er-NHC) gold(I) complexes has been synthesized using different synthetic approaches. Complexes with weakly coordinating anions [(er-NHC)AuX] (X(-) = BF4(-), NTf2(-), OTf(-)) were generated in solution. According to their (13)C NMR spectra, the ionic character of the complexes increases in the order X(-) = Cl(-) < NTf2(-) < OTf(-) < BF4(-). Additional factors for stabilization of the cationic complexes are expansion of the NHC ring and the attachment of bulky substituents at the nitrogen atoms. These er-NHCs are bulkier ligands and stronger electron donors than conventional NHCs as well as phosphines and sulfides and provide more stabilization of [(L)Au(+)] cations. A comparative study has been carried out of the catalytic activities of five-, six-, and seven-membered carbene complexes [(NHC)AuX], [(Ph3 P)AuX], [(Me2S)AuX], and inorganic compounds of gold in model reactions of indole and benzofuran synthesis. It was found that increased ionic character of the complexes was correlated with increased catalytic activity in the cyclization reactions. As a result, we developed an unprecedentedly active monoligand cationic [(THD-Dipp)Au]BF4 (1,3-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrahydrodiazepin-2-ylidene gold(I) tetrafluoroborate) catalyst bearing seven-membered-ring carbene and bulky Dipp substituents. Quantitative yields of cyclized products were attained in several minutes at room temperature at 1 mol % catalyst loadings. The experimental observations were rationalized and fully supported by DFT calculations.

Bis(µ2-2-(dimethylamino)ethoxo-N,O,O)-di(phenolato-O)ditin(II): a high-resolution single-crystal X-ray diffraction and quantum chemical study.

Experimental and calculated electron density functions ρ(r) of the title compound in the crystal were obtained. These were compared with ρ(r) for an isolated dimer. Application of the `Atoms in Molecules' theory allowed the visualization of the electron lone pair (Lp) of tin(II) and the calculation of some bond energies and all atomic charges. The stereochemical activity of the Lp was demonstrated and its volume was estimated to be approximately 10 Å(3). The energies of N→Sn and Sn-O bonds were found to be 13-18 and 25-52 kJ mol(-1). According to the experimental, AM05-PW and PBE0/6-311G(d,p) calculation data, µ(2)-2-(dimethylamino)ethoxoate accepts 0.68, 0.45 and 0.40 e from the Sn atom. Using the example of µ(2)-2-(dimethylamino)ethoxoates and complexes of bis(n-butyl)tin(IV) it was demonstrated that the more screened the Sn atom, the better the catalytic activity of its complex in polyurethane synthesis.

Ring size and nothing else matters: unusual regioselectivity of alkyne hydration by NHC gold(I) complexes.

We have investigated the role of ring sizes and substituents in NHC ligands in some (NHC)Au(i) complexes in the hydration of internal alkynes. Despite the fact that using (NHC)Au(i) complexes in the hydration of diarylacetylenes leads to Markovnikov-type products, the precise tuning of ligands allows changing the regioselectivity in arylalkylacetylene hydration to the anti-Markovnikov-type.

Mechanisms in the reaction of palladium(II)-pi-allyl complexes with aryl halides: evidence for NHC exchange between two palladium complexes.

A detailed experimental and DFT study (PBE level) of the reaction of [Pd(eta(3)-C(3)H(5))(tmiy)(PR(3))]BF(4) (tmiy = tetramethylimidazolin-2-ylidene, PR(3) = phosphane), precursors to monoligated Pd(0) species, with aryl electrophiles yielding 2-arylimidazolium salt is reported. Experiments establish that an autocatalytic ligand transfer mechanism is preferred over Pd(IV) and sigma-bond metathesis pathways, and that transmetalation is the rate-determining step. Calculations indicate that the key step involves the concerted exchange of NHC and iodo ligands between two different Pd(II) complexes. This is corroborated by experimental results showing the slower reaction of complexes containing the bulkier dipdmiy (dipdmiy = diisopropyldimethylimidazolin-2-ylidene).

Mixed er-NHC/phosphine Pd(ii) complexes and their catalytic activity in the Buchwald-Hartwig reaction under solvent-free conditions.

A series of novel (NHC)PdCl2-PR3 complexes were synthesized and fully characterized by 1H, 13C, 31P NMR and FT-IR spectroscopy. These complexes showed high catalytic activity toward solvent-free Buchwald-Hartwig amination. Both primary and secondary amines were efficiently utilized under the same reaction conditions. The solvent-free synthesis of valuable N-aryl carbazoles and similar N-heterocyclic systems was described.

Solvent- and transition metal-free amide synthesis from phenyl esters and aryl amines.

A general, economical, and environmentally friendly method of amide synthesis from phenyl esters and aryl amines was developed. This new method has significant advantages compared to previously reported palladium-catalyzed approaches. The reaction is performed transition metal- and solvent-free, using a cheap and environmentally benign base, NaH. This approach enabled us to obtain target amides in high yields with high atom economy.

Evidence for Indirect Action of Ionizing Radiation in 18-Crown-6 Complexes with Halogenous Salts of Strontium: Simulation of Radiation-Induced Transformations in Ionic Liquid/Crown Ether Compositions.

Ionic liquid/crown ether compositions are an attractive alternative to traditional extractants in the processes for spent nuclear fuel and liquid radioactive wastes reprocessing. These compositions are exposed to ionizing radiation, and their radiation stability, especially in the presence of metal salts, is a crucial issue. In the present study, the macrocyclic 18C6·Sr(BF4)2 and 18C6·Sr(PF6)2 complexes simulating the components of metal loaded ionic liquid/crown ether extractants were synthesized and their structures were characterized by FTIR spectroscopy and single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Inclusion of Sr2+ cation into the 18C6 cavity resulted in more symmetric D3d conformations of the macrocycle. The structural transformations of the crown ether were accompanied by an elongation of polyether C-O bonds that could increase the possibility of radiolytic cleavage of the macrocycle. However, EPR study of the synthesized compounds subjected to X-ray irradiation revealed predominant formation of macrocyclic -CH2-CH-O- radicals. This result demonstrated an evidence for indirect action of ionizing radiation on individual components of the complexes and was reasonably described by a positive "hole" transfer from primary macrocyclic radical cation to fluorous anion at the primary stages of radiolysis and a subsequent interaction of fluorine atom with 18C6 macrocycle in secondary radical reactions. The observed effects may be partially responsible for enhanced sensitivity of the ionic liquid/crown ether extractants to ionizing radiation due to chemical blocking of the crown ether with radiolytic HF, radiation-chemical degradation of the 18C6, and precipitation of a low-soluble SrF2.

Microporous Materials Based on Norbornadiene-Based Cross-Linked Polymers.

New microporous homopolymers were readily prepared from norbornadiene-2,5, its dimer and trimer by addition (vinyl) polymerization of the corresponding monomers with 60⁻98% yields. As a catalyst Pd-N-heterocyclic carbene complex or Ni(II) 2-ethylhexanoate activated with Na⁺[B(3,5-(CF3)2C6H3)4]- or methylaluminoxane was used. The synthesized polynorbornenes are cross-linked and insoluble. They are glassy and amorphous polymers. Depending on the nature of the catalyst applied, BET surface areas were in the range of 420⁻970 m²/g. The polymers with the highest surface area were obtained in the presence of Pd-catalysts from the trimer of norbornadiene-2,5. The total pore volume of the polymers varies from 0.39 to 0.79 cm³/g, while the true volume of micropores was 0.14⁻0.16 cm³/g according to t-plot. These polymers gave CO2 uptake from 1.2 to 1.9 mmol/g at 273 K and 1 atm. The porous structure of new polymers was also studied by means of wide-angle X-ray diffraction and positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy.

Eight-membered-ring diaminocarbenes bearing naphthalene moiety in the backbone: DFT studies, synthesis of amidinium salts, generation of free carbene, metal complexes, and solvent-free copper catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction.

A new type of eight-membered ring N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) bearing a rigid naphthalene moiety in the backbone is reported for the first time. Stereoelectronic properties of 4,5-dihydro-1H-naphtho[1,8-ef][1,3]diazocin-3(2H)-ylidene (NaphtDHD) and smaller ring NHCs were theoretically studied at the DFT level. Amidinium salts were prepared from corresponding amidines and dibromides. Free carbene NaphtDHD-Dipp (Dipp = 2,6-diisopropylphenyl) was generated in solution by treatment of the corresponding salt with LiHMDS. It is stable in solution at low temperatures, while decomposing rapidly at room temperature. Silver(i) and copper(i) complexes were synthesized and structurally characterized in the solid state. The copper(i) complex [(NaphtDHD-Mes)CuBr] (Mes = mesityl, 2,4,6-trimethylphenyl) exhibits high catalytic activity in alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction under solvent-free conditions.

Expanded ring diaminocarbene palladium complexes: synthesis, structure, and Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling of heteroaryl chlorides in water.

A series of new 6- and 7-membered N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes of palladium (NHC)Pd(cinn)Cl (cinn = cinnamyl = 3-phenylallyl) were synthesized and characterized structurally in the solid state. The influence of ring size (5, 6 or 7) and bulkiness of N-aryl substituents (Mes = 2,4,6-trimethylphenyl, or Dipp = 2,6-diisopropylphenyl) in carbenes on palladium catalysed Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling was revealed. Due to the unique stereoelectronic properties of expanded ring NHCs, a versatile, highly efficient green protocol of coupling of heteroaromatic chlorides and bromides with boronic acids has been developed. High quantitative yields of biaryls were achieved with water as solvent, under air, using low catalyst and phase transfer agent loadings, and with mild and environmentally benign base NaHCO3.

Dual reactivity of N-heterocyclic carbenes towards copper(II) salts.

Complexes of N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) with copper(II) halogenides are unstable. Upon formation, these complexes decompose to give haloamidinium salts. Contrastingly, O-substituted copper(II) NHC complexes are fairly stable. A series of new five-, six- and seven-membered ring NHC complexes of Cu(OAc)(2) have been synthesised and characterised in the solid state.

N-heterocyclic carbenes bearing two, one and no nitrogen atoms at the ylidene carbon: insight from theoretical calculations.

Electronic structure, thermodynamic stability and ligand properties in LRh(CO)2Cl complexes of a series of N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) were studied at the DFT level. The systems under study are: imidazolin-2-ylidene (1), imidazolidin-2-ylidene (2), cyclic(alkyl)(amino)carbene (CAAC, 3), pyrazolin-3-ylidene (4), pyridin-2-ylidene (5), and pyridin-4-ylidene (6). The main structural feature influencing the properties of these species is the number of nitrogen atoms at the ylidene carbon. A decrease of the number of nitrogen atoms on the one hand leads to an increase in donor ability and ligand-to-metal bond strength, but lowers the stability of the NHC on the other hand. The number of nitrogen atoms can be taken as a key parameter for the classification of carbenes into 2N-NHC, 1N-NHC and r-NHC (r = remote).