MSL2 variants lead to a neurodevelopmental syndrome with lack of coordination, epilepsy, specific dysmorphisms, and a distinct episignature.

Epigenetic dysregulation has emerged as an important etiological mechanism of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). Pathogenic variation in epigenetic regulators can impair deposition of histone post-translational modifications leading to aberrant spatiotemporal gene expression during neurodevelopment. The male-specific lethal (MSL) complex is a prominent multi-subunit epigenetic regulator of gene expression and is responsible for histone 4 lysine 16 acetylation (H4K16ac). Using exome sequencing, here we identify a cohort of 25 individuals with heterozygous de novo variants in MSL complex member MSL2. MSL2 variants were associated with NDD phenotypes including global developmental delay, intellectual disability, hypotonia, and motor issues such as coordination problems, feeding difficulties, and gait disturbance. Dysmorphisms and behavioral and/or psychiatric conditions, including autism spectrum disorder, and to a lesser extent, seizures, connective tissue disease signs, sleep disturbance, vision problems, and other organ anomalies, were observed in affected individuals. As a molecular biomarker, a sensitive and specific DNA methylation episignature has been established. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from three members of our cohort exhibited reduced MSL2 levels. Remarkably, while NDD-associated variants in two other members of the MSL complex (MOF and MSL3) result in reduced H4K16ac, global H4K16ac levels are unchanged in iPSCs with MSL2 variants. Regardless, MSL2 variants altered the expression of MSL2 targets in iPSCs and upon their differentiation to early germ layers. Our study defines an MSL2-related disorder as an NDD with distinguishable clinical features, a specific blood DNA episignature, and a distinct, MSL2-specific molecular etiology compared to other MSL complex-related disorders.

Transcriptomic profiling of TK2 deficient human skeletal muscle suggests a role for the p53 signalling pathway and identifies growth and differentiation factor-15 as a potential novel biomarker for mitochondrial myopathies.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the gene encoding thymidine kinase 2 (TK2) result in the myopathic form of mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome which is a mitochondrial encephalomyopathy presenting in children. In order to unveil some of the mechanisms involved in this pathology and to identify potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets we have investigated the gene expression profile of human skeletal muscle deficient for TK2 using cDNA microarrays. RESULTS: We have analysed the whole transcriptome of skeletal muscle from patients with TK2 mutations and compared it to normal muscle and to muscle from patients with other mitochondrial myopathies. We have identified a set of over 700 genes which are differentially expressed in TK2 deficient muscle. Bioinformatics analysis reveals important changes in muscle metabolism, in particular, in glucose and glycogen utilisation, and activation of the starvation response which affects aminoacid and lipid metabolism. We have identified those transcriptional regulators which are likely to be responsible for the observed changes in gene expression. CONCLUSION: Our data point towards the tumor suppressor p53 as the regulator at the centre of a network of genes which are responsible for a coordinated response to TK2 mutations which involves inflammation, activation of muscle cell death by apoptosis and induction of growth and differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) in muscle and serum. We propose that GDF-15 may represent a potential novel biomarker for mitochondrial dysfunction although further studies are required.

Regulation of lipid accumulation by AMP-activated kinase [corrected] in high fat diet-induced kidney injury.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is an important energy sensor that may be critical in regulating renal lipid accumulation. To evaluate the role of AMPK in mediating renal lipid accumulation, C57BL/6J mice were randomized to a standard diet, a high-fat diet, or a high-fat diet plus AICAR (an AMPK activator) for 14 weeks. Renal functional and structural studies along with electron microscopy were performed. Mice given the high-fat diet had proximal tubule injury with the presence of enlarged clear vacuoles, and multilaminar inclusions concurrent with an increase of tissue lipid and overloading of the lysosomal system. The margins of the clear vacuoles were positive for the endolysosomal marker, LAMP1, suggesting lysosome accumulation. Characterization of vesicles by special stains (Oil Red O, Nile Red, Luxol Fast Blue) and by electron microscopy showed they contained onion skin-like accumulations consistent with phospholipids. Moreover, cholesteryl esters and phosphatidylcholine-containing phospholipids were significantly increased in the kidneys of mice on a high-fat diet. AMPK activation with chronic AICAR treatment prevented the clinical and structural effects of high-fat diet. Thus, high-fat diet contributes to a dysfunction of the lysosomal system and altered lipid metabolism characterized by cholesterol and phospholipid accumulation in the kidney. AMPK activation normalizes the changes in renal lipid content despite chronic exposure to lipid challenge.

Optical genome mapping in an atypical Pelizaeus-Merzbacher prenatal challenge.

Pathogenic genetic variants represent a challenge in prenatal counseling, especially when clinical presentation in familial carriers is atypical. We describe a prenatal case involving a microarray-detected duplication of PLP1 which causes X-linked Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease, a progressive hypomyelinating leukodystrophy. Because of atypical clinical presentation in an older male child, the duplication was examined using a novel technology, optical genome mapping, and was found to be an inverted duplication, which has not been previously described. Simultaneously, segregation analysis identified another healthy adult male carrier of this unique structural rearrangement. The novel PLP1 structural variant was reclassified, and a healthy boy was delivered. In conclusion, we suggest that examining structural variants with novel methods is warranted especially in cases with atypical clinical presentation and may in these cases lead to improved prenatal and postnatal genetic counseling.

Antipurinergic therapy corrects the autism-like features in the poly(IC) mouse model.

BACKGROUND: Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Mitochondria act to connect genes and environment by regulating gene-encoded metabolic networks according to changes in the chemistry of the cell and its environment. Mitochondrial ATP and other metabolites are mitokines-signaling molecules made in mitochondria-that undergo regulated release from cells to communicate cellular health and danger to neighboring cells via purinergic signaling. The role of purinergic signaling has not yet been explored in autism spectrum disorders. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS: We used the maternal immune activation (MIA) mouse model of gestational poly(IC) exposure and treatment with the non-selective purinergic antagonist suramin to test the role of purinergic signaling in C57BL/6J mice. RESULTS: We found that antipurinergic therapy (APT) corrected 16 multisystem abnormalities that defined the ASD-like phenotype in this model. These included correction of the core social deficits and sensorimotor coordination abnormalities, prevention of cerebellar Purkinje cell loss, correction of the ultrastructural synaptic dysmorphology, and correction of the hypothermia, metabolic, mitochondrial, P2Y2 and P2X7 purinergic receptor expression, and ERK1/2 and CAMKII signal transduction abnormalities. CONCLUSIONS: Hyperpurinergia is a fundamental and treatable feature of the multisystem abnormalities in the poly(IC) mouse model of autism spectrum disorders. Antipurinergic therapy provides a new tool for refining current concepts of pathogenesis in autism and related spectrum disorders, and represents a fresh path forward for new drug development.

Functional outcome of children with mitochondrial diseases.

We evaluated the functional outcome in a cohort of 22 children with mitochondrial diseases. The Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory was administered and scaled scores determined. A large variability in functional skills was seen in all 3 assessed domains: Self-Care (46.4 ± 25.6 S.D.; median 42.4; range 11.8-100), Mobility (47.1 ± 30.4 S.D.; median 46.7; range 6.1-100), and Social Function (49.7 ± 22.3 S.D.; median 45.6; range 21.6-100). There was also a large variability in caregiver assistance, ranging from independent functioning to total dependence on assistance for the following: Self-Care (29.0 ± 33.7 S.D.; median 10.1; range 0-100), Mobility (36.6 ± 38.5 S.D.; median 26.1; range 0-100), and Social Function (42.9 ± 32.4 S.D.; median 44.4; range 0-100). The Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory scores describe in depth different, but strongly related, aspects of everyday functioning in children with mitochondrial diseases. The importance of caregiver assistance in helping these children should not be underestimated. The use of assistive devices was estimated, which were found to be used by few patients.