Crystal structure of the yeast TFIIA/TBP/DNA complex.

The crystal structure of the yeast TFIIA/TBP/TATA promoter complex was solved to 3 angstrom resolution by double-edge multiple wavelength anomalous diffraction from two different species of anomalous scattering elements in the same crystal. The large and small subunits of TFIIA associate intimately to form both domains of a two-domain folding pattern. TFIIA binds as a heterodimer to the side of the TBP/TATA complex opposite to the side that binds TFIIB and does not alter the TBP/DNA interaction. The six-stranded beta-sandwich domain interacts with the amino-terminal end of TBP through a stereospecific parallel beta-strand interface and with the backbone of the TATA box and the 5'-flanking B-DNA segment. The four-helix-bundle domain projects away from the TBP/TATA complex, thereby presenting a substantial surface for further protein-protein interactions.

Scissors-grip model for DNA recognition by a family of leucine zipper proteins.

C/EBP is a sequence-specific DNA binding protein that regulates gene expression in certain mammalian cells. The region of the C/EBP polypeptide required for specific recognition of DNA is related in amino acid sequence to other regulatory proteins, including the Fos and Jun transforming proteins. It has been proposed that these proteins bind DNA via a bipartite structural motif, consisting of a dimerization interface termed the "leucine zipper" and a DNA contact surface termed the "basic region." An evaluation of the properties of conserved amino acids within the basic region of 11 deduced protein sequences, coupled with the observation that they are located at an invariant distance from the leucine zipper, has led to the formulation of a "scissors-grip" model for DNA binding. The architectural features of this model are well suited for interaction with directly abutted, dyadsymmetric DNA sequences. Data supportive of the model were obtained with chemical probes of protein: DNA complexes.

Cholera toxin crystals suitable for x-ray diffraction.

Large crystals of the cholera toxin were grown; their dimensions, symmetry (P21), order, and resistance to radiation make them ideally suited for a high-resolution x-ray structure determination. There is one molecule (approximately 84,000 daltons) per asymmetric unit, and therefore the lattice reveals no molecular symmetry. Two distinct bioassays indicate that the protein from dissolved crystals retains full biological activity.

Crystal structure of cobra-venom phospholipase A2 in a complex with a transition-state analogue.

The crystal structure of a complex between a phosphonate transition-state analogue and the phospholipase A2 (PLA2) from Naja naja atra venom has been solved and refined to a resolution of 2.0 angstroms. The identical stereochemistry of the two complexes that comprise the crystal's asymmetric unit indicates both the manner in which the transition state is stabilized and how the hydrophobic fatty acyl chains of the substrate are accommodated by the enzyme during interfacial catalysis. The critical features that suggest the chemistry of binding and catalysis are the same as those seen in the crystal structure of a similar complex formed with the evolutionarily distant bee-venom PLA2.

Crystal structure of bee-venom phospholipase A2 in a complex with a transition-state analogue.

The 2.0 angstroms crystal structure of a complex containing bee-venom phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and a phosphonate transition-state analogue was solved by multiple isomorphous replacement. The electron-density map is sufficiently detailed to visualize the proximal sugars of the enzyme's N-linked carbohydrate and a single molecule of the transition-state analogue bound ot its active center. Although bee-venom PLA2 does not belong to the large homologous Class I/II family that encompasses most other well-studied PLA2s, there is segmental sequence similarity and conservation of many functional substructures. Comparison of the bee-venom enzyme with other phospholipase structures provides compelling evidence for a common catalytic mechanism.

Structures of free and inhibited human secretory phospholipase A2 from inflammatory exudate.

Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) participates in a wide range of cellular processes including inflammation and transmembrane signaling. A human nonpancreatic secretory PLA2 (hnps-PLA2) has been identified that is found in high concentrations in the synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and in the plasma of patients with septic shock. This enzyme is secreted from certain cell types in response to the proinflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor or interleukin-1. The crystal structures of the calcium-bound form of this enzyme have been determined at physiological pH both in the presence [2.1 angstrom (A) resolution] and absence (2.2 A resolution) of a transition-state analogue. Although the critical features that suggest the chemistry of catalysis are identical to those inferred from the crystal structures of other extracellular PLA2s, the shape of the hydrophobic channel of hnps-PLA2 is uniquely modulated by substrate binding.

Single crystals of transfer RNA from formylmethionine and phenylalanine transfer RNA's.

Reproducible conditions have been developed for crystallization of transfer RNA. The conditions may be applicable to many pure transfer RNA species since identical procedures (except for initial transfer-RNA concentration) yielded good crystals from both yeast and Escherichia coli transfer RNA. These crystals, which must be kept at temperatures below about 10 degrees C and handled in vapor of controlled alcohol concentration, have been studied by x-ray crystallography. The availability of crystals of a nucleic acid opens a route for extending knowledge of the tertiary structure of transfer RNA and its relation to important biological functions.

An isomorphous heavy-atom derivative of crystaline formylmethionine transfer RNA.

An isomorphous osmium derivative of crystalline yeast initiator transfer RNA has been prepared and interpreted to 6-angstrom resolution. The coordinates of the heavy atoms have been determined by Patterson and "direct" methods applied to the difference coefficients of the centric projections, followed by least-squares refinement. There is one dominant site per asymmetric unit, consistent with the finding by neutron-activation analysis that there is approximately one osmium atom per molecule of transfer RNA. The osmium derivative appears to be a normal substrate for enzymatic aminoacylation.

Interfacial catalysis: the mechanism of phospholipase A2.

A chemical description of the action of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) can now be inferred with confidence from three high-resolution x-ray crystal structures. The first is the structure of the PLA2 from the venom of the Chinese cobra (Naja naja atra) in a complex with a phosphonate transition-state analogue. This enzyme is typical of a large, well-studied homologous family of PLA2S. The second is a similar complex with the evolutionarily distant bee-venom PLA2. The third structure is the uninhibited PLA2 from Chinese cobra venom. Despite the different molecular architectures of the cobra and bee-venom PLA2s, the transition-state analogue interacts in a nearly identical way with the catalytic machinery of both enzymes. The disposition of the fatty-acid side chains suggests a common access route of the substrate from its position in the lipid aggregate to its productive interaction with the active site. Comparison of the cobra-venom complex with the uninhibited enzyme indicates that optimal binding and catalysis at the lipid-water interface is due to facilitated substrate diffusion from the interfacial binding surface to the catalytic site rather than an allosteric change in the enzyme's structure. However, a second bound calcium ion changes its position upon the binding of the transition-state analogue, suggesting a mechanism for augmenting the critical electrophile.

Activating mineralocorticoid receptor mutation in hypertension exacerbated by pregnancy.

Hypertension and pregnancy-related hypertension are major public health problems of largely unknown causes. We describe a mutation in the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), S810L, that causes early-onset hypertension that is markedly exacerbated in pregnancy. This mutation results in constitutive MR activity and alters receptor specificity, with progesterone and other steroids lacking 21-hydroxyl groups, normally MR antagonists, becoming potent agonists. Structural and biochemical studies indicate that the mutation results in the gain of a van der Waals interaction between helix 5 and helix 3 that substitutes for interaction of the steroid 21-hydroxyl group with helix 3 in the wild-type receptor. This helix 5-helix 3 interaction is highly conserved among diverse nuclear hormone receptors, suggesting its general role in receptor activation.

Structure of beta 2-bungarotoxin: potassium channel binding by Kunitz modules and targeted phospholipase action.

BACKGROUND: beta-bungarotoxin is a heterodimeric neurotoxin consisting of a phospholipase subunit linked by a disulfide bond to a K+ channel binding subunit which is a member of the Kunitz protease inhibitor superfamily. Toxicity, characterized by blockage of neural transmission, is achieved by the lipolytic action of the phospholipase targeted to the presynaptic membrane by the Kunitz module. RESULTS: The crystal structure at 2.45 A resolution suggests that the ion channel binding region of the Kunitz subunit is at the opposite end of the module from the loop typically involved in protease binding. Analysis of the phospholipase subunit reveals a partially occluded substrate-binding surface and reduced hydrophobicity. CONCLUSIONS: Molecular recognition by this Kunitz module appears to diverge considerably from more conventional superfamily members. The ion channel binding region identified here may mimic the regulatory interaction of endogenous neuropeptides. Adaptations of the phospholipase subunit make it uniquely suited to targeting and explain the remarkable ability of the toxin to avoid binding to non-target membranes. Insight into the mechanism of beta-bungarotoxin gained here may lead to the development of therapeutic strategies against not only pathological cells, but also enveloped viruses.

Crystal structure of beta-arrestin at 1.9 A: possible mechanism of receptor binding and membrane Translocation.

BACKGROUND: Arrestins are responsible for the desensitization of many sequence-divergent G protein-coupled receptors. They compete with G proteins for binding to activated phosphorylated receptors, initiate receptor internalization, and activate additional signaling pathways. RESULTS: In order to understand the structural basis for receptor binding and arrestin's function as an adaptor molecule, we determined the X-ray crystal structure of two truncated forms of bovine beta-arrestin in its cytosolic inactive state to 1.9 A. Mutational analysis and chimera studies identify the regions in beta-arrestin responsible for receptor binding specificity. beta-arrestin demonstrates high structural homology with the previously solved visual arrestin. All key structural elements responsible for arrestin's mechanism of activation are conserved. CONCLUSIONS: Based on structural analysis and mutagenesis data, we propose a previously unappreciated part in beta-arrestin's mode of action by which a cationic amphipathic helix may function as a reversible membrane anchor. This novel activation mechanism would facilitate the formation of a high-affinity complex between beta-arrestin and an activated receptor regardless of its specific subtype. Like the interaction between beta-arrestin's polar core and the phosphorylated receptor, such a general activation mechanism would contribute to beta-arrestin's versatility as a regulator of many receptors.

A dynamic model for the allosteric mechanism of GroEL.

GroEL-assisted protein folding is regulated by a cycle of large coordinated domain movements in the 14-subunit double-ring assembly. The transition path between the closed (unliganded) and the open (liganded) states, calculated with a targeted molecular dynamics simulation, shows the highly complex subunit displacements required for the allosteric transition. The early downward motion of the small intermediate domain induced by nucleotide binding emerges as the trigger for the larger movements of the apical and equatorial domains. The combined twisting and upward displacement of the apical domain determined for a single subunit is accommodated easily in the heptamer ring only if its opening is concerted. This is a major source of cooperative ligand binding within a ring. It suggests also that GroEL has evolved so that the motion required for heptamer cooperativity is encoded in the individual subunits. A calculated model for a di-cis 14-subunit assembly is found to be destabilized by strong steric repulsion between the equatorial domains of the two rings, the source of negative cooperativity. The simulation results, which indicate that transient interactions along the transition path are essential for GroEL function, provide a detailed structural description of the motions that are involved in the GroEL allosteric cycle.

Directly photocrosslinked nucleotides joining transfer RNA to aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase in methionine and tyrosine systems.

We have used ultraviolet photocrosslinking and 32P post-labeling to help define the contact surface between transfer RNAs and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases for the methionine and tyrosine systems. Photocrosslinking between tRNAs and synthetases is shown to occur only in cognate complexes. The increased sensitivity of our procedures reduces the amounts of interacting macromolecules and permits lower ultraviolet light doses, thereby minimizing radiation damage. These procedures have detected crosslinks only within the 3'-terminal RNase T1 fragments in yeast tRNAMeti and Escherichia coli tRNATyr2; and although the photoadducts were unstable, we have identified the crosslinked nucleotides. These crosslinks occur at positions C74 and A76 in yeast tRNAMeti and position U64 in E. coli tRNATyr1&2 (conventional tRNA numbering system of Gauss & Sprinzl, 1981). This work demonstrates that even labile photocrosslinks can be exploited for mapping crosslinked nucleotides.

A thermodynamic study of the trp repressor-operator interaction.

We have measured the heats of formation of the trp repressor/operator complex by direct titration calorimetry over the temperature range 10 degrees C to 40 degrees C. A primary strong mode of binding displays the characteristic large negative heat capacity change observed by other methods in the formation of specific protein/DNA complexes. Unlike most such reactions, however, the formation of the trp repressor/operator complex is enthalpically driven throughout the physiological temperature range. After saturation of this principal mode, we also detected a secondary weaker binding mode, which we ascribe to a now well documented interaction called "half-site" binding. Although weak, this mode also exhibits an unusually large negative heat capacity change. Since the interface of the proposed secondary half-site binding mode has the same complementary stereochemistry as the primary one (due to internal symmetry), we correlate the negative heat capacity change with the formation of a stereospecific interface and not with high affinity. As in similar cases, the empirical correlation between buried non-polar surfaces and reduction of heat capacity does not account for the large negative delta Cp, nor do crystal structures reveal any further reduction in solvent excluded surfaces within the reactants upon complex formation. We attribute the "unaccounted for" decrement in the heat capacity of the complex to the stereospecific restriction of the hydrated polar elements that form the specific interface. We suggest that the "tightening of soft internal modes" at and near the polar interface of the complex is more important than previously recognized because previous considerations did not take into account the highly hydrated nature of these polar elements and the concomitant reduction in the degrees of freedom of the water structure.

The effects of salt on the TATA binding protein-DNA interaction from a hyperthermophilic archaeon.

This study investigates the thermodynamics of the interaction of the TATA box binding protein (TBP) from Pyrococcus woesei (Pw) with an oligonucleotide containing a specific binding site. Pw is a hyperthermophilic archeal organism which exists under conditions of high salt and high temperature. A measurable protein-DNA interaction only occurs at high salt concentrations. Isothermal titration calorimetric binding studies were performed under a range of salts (potassium chloride, potassium phosphate, potassium acetate and sodium acetate) at varying concentrations (0.8 to 1.6 M). At the high salt concentrations used the observed equilibrium binding constant increases with increasing salt concentration. This is very different to the effect reported for all other protein-DNA interactions which have been studied at lower salt concentrations. Thermodynamic data suggest that the protein-DNA interaction at high salt concentration is accompanied by the removal of large numbers of water molecules from the buried hydrophobic surface area. In addition, the involvement of ions appears to influence the binding which can be explained by binding of cations in the interface between the electrostatically negative lateral lobes on the protein and the negatively charged DNA.

Structure of the oligomerization and L-arginine binding domain of the arginine repressor of Escherichia coli.

The structure of the oligomerization and L-arginine binding domain of the Escherichia coli arginine repressor (ArgR) has been determined using X-ray diffraction methods at 2.2 A resolution with bound arginine and at 2.8 A in the unliganded form. The oligomeric core is a 3-fold rotationally symmetric hexamer formed from six identical subunits corresponding to the 77 C-terminal residues (80 to 156) of ArgR. Each subunit has an alpha/beta fold containing a four-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet and two antiparallel alpha-helices. The hexamer is formed from two trimers, each with tightly packed hydrophobic cores. In the absence of arginine, the trimers stack back-to-back through a dyad-symmetric, sparsely packed hydrophobic interface. Six molecules of arginine bind at the trimer-trimer interface, each making ten hydrogen bonds to the protein including a direct ion pair that crosslinks the two protein trimers. Solution experiments with wild-type ArgR and oligomerization domain indicate that the hexameric form is greatly stabilized upon arginine binding. The crystal structures and solution experiments together suggest possible mechanisms of how arginine activates ArgR to bind to its DNA targets and provides a stereochemical basis for interpreting the results of mutagenesis and biochemical experiments with ArgR.

The crystal structure of a hyperthermophilic archaeal TATA-box binding protein.

This study analyzes the three-dimensional structure of the TATA-box binding protein (TBP) from the hyperthermophilic archaea Pyrococcus woesei. The crystal structure of P. woesei TBP (PwTBP) was solved at 2.2 A by X-ray diffraction and as expected from sequence homology (36% to 41% identical to eukaryotic TBPs) its overall structure is very similar to eukaryotic TBPs. The thermal unfolding transition temperature of this protein was measured by differential scanning calorimetry to be 101 degrees C, which is more than 40 degrees C higher than that of yeast TBP. Preliminary titration calorimetry data show that the affinity of PwTBP for its DNA target, unlike its eukaryotic counterparts, is enhanced by increasing the temperature and salt concentration. The structure reveals possible explanations for this thermostability and these unusual DNA binding properties. The crystal structure of this hyperthermostable protein was compared to its mesophilic homologs and analyzed for differences in the native structure that may contribute to thermostability. Differences found were: (1) a disulfide bond not found in mesophilic counterparts; (2) an increased number of surface electrostatic interactions; (3) more compact protein packing. The presumed DNA binding surface of PwTBP, like its eukaryotic counterparts, is hydrophobic but the electrostatic profile surrounding the protein is relatively neutral compared to the asymmetric positive potential that surrounds eukaryotic TBPs. The total reliance on a hydrophobic interface with DNA may explain the enhanced affinity of PwTBP for its DNA promoter at higher temperatures and increased salt concentration.

Structural aspects of heterotrimeric G-protein signaling.

Recently, structures of heterotrimeric G-protein subunits have been determined in isolation, in conjunction with each other, and in complex with their regulators. Along with biochemical information, these structures suggest how G-protein subunits are oriented relative to the membrane surface and relative to seven-transmembrane helix receptors. They also suggest mechanisms for receptor-catalyzed nucleotide exchange.

CpA containing oligoribonucleotides specifically inhibit protein synthesis in rabbit reticulocytes.

The diribonucleoside monophosphate CpA (and no others) inhibits polypeptide chain elongation in rabbit reticulocyte lysates at 10-50 microM. Furthermore, all the trinucleotides containing CpA, i.e., XpCpA and CpApX (X = U, C, A or G) block polypeptide chain elongation as well. At 10 microM the inhibition by XpCpA and not CpApX is transient because a 3'-exonucleolytic activity destroys the critical CpA moiety. The inhibitors do not appear to interfere with the aminoacylation of tRNAs or disrupt the interaction of amino-acyl-tRNAs with the protein synthetic machinery. High levels (200 microM) of CpA or the trinucleotides containing CpA have no effect on translation in a wheat germ cell-free system.