Fish Quality Index Method: Principles, weaknesses, validation, and alternatives-A review.

Fish is a high nutritional value matrix of which production and consumption have been increasing in the last years. Advancements in the efficient evaluation of freshness are essential to optimize the quality assessment, to improve consumer safety, and to reduce raw material losses. Therefore, it is necessary to use rapid, nondestructive, and objective methodologies to evaluate the quality of this matrix. Quality Index Method (QIM) is a tool applied to indicate fish freshness through a sensory evaluation performed by a group of assessors. However, the use of QIM as an official method for quality assessment is limited by the protocol, sampling size, specificities of the species, storage conditions, and assessor's experience, which make this method subjective. Also, QIM may present divergences regarding the development of microorganisms and chemical analysis. In this way, novel quality evaluation methods such as electronic noses, electronic tongues, machine vision system, and colorimetric sensors have been proposed, and novel technologies such as proteomics and mitochondrial analysis have been developed. In this review, the weaknesses of QIM were exposed, and novel methodologies for quality evaluation were presented. The consolidation of these novel methodologies and their use as methods of quality assessment are an alternative to sensory methods, and their understanding enables a more effective fish quality control.

Study on the developmental toxicity of ß-ionone in the rat.

ß-ionone (BIO) is used in fragrances, toiletries and non-cosmetic products, and as a flavor food additive. Notwithstanding the widespread human exposure, there are limited data on the reproductive toxicity of BIO. This study evaluated the developmental toxicity of BIO (0, 125, 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg body weight/day) given orally to rats on days 6-15 of gestation (GD6-15). C-section was on GD21 and implantations, living and dead fetuses and resorptions were recorded. Fetuses were weighed, and examined for external abnormalities and skeleton and visceral anomalies. The embryotoxicity of a single oral dose of BIO (1000 mg/kg body wt) given on GD11 was evaluated as well. At the highest dose, BIO reduced weight gain and produced chromodacryorrhea and other signs of toxicity. BIO did not increase the frequency of malformations nor did it retard fetal growth. Nonetheless, BIO decreased the pregnancy rate in the group of females exposed on GD6-15, and increased the resorption rate in those treated on GD11 only. In conclusion, except for a higher embryolethality at a maternally toxic dose, BIO caused no embryotoxic effect over the dose range tested and the study NOAEL for maternal and developmental toxicity was 500 mg of BIO/ kg of body weight/day.

Glyphosate and adverse pregnancy outcomes, a systematic review of observational studies.

BACKGROUND: A study in frog and chicken embryos, and reports of a high incidence of birth defects in regions of intensive GM-soy planting have raised concerns on the teratogenic potential of glyphosate-based herbicides. These public concerns prompted us to conduct a systematic review of the epidemiological studies testing hypotheses of associations between glyphosate exposure and adverse pregnancy outcomes including birth defects. METHODS: A systematic and comprehensive literature search was performed in MEDLINE, TOXLINE, Bireme-BVS and SCOPUS databases using different combinations of exposure and outcome terms. A case-control study on the association between pesticides and congenital malformations in areas of extensive GM soy crops in South America, and reports on the occurrence of birth defects in these regions were reviewed as well. RESULTS: The search found ten studies testing associations between glyphosate and birth defects, abortions, pre-term deliveries, small for gestational date births, childhood diseases or altered sex ratios. Two additional studies examined changes of time-to-pregnancy in glyphosate-exposed populations. Except for an excess of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - ADHD (OR = 3.6, 1.3-9.6) among children born to glyphosate appliers, no significant associations between this herbicide and adverse pregnancy outcomes were described. Evidence that in South American regions of intensive GM-soy planting incidence of birth defects is high remains elusive. CONCLUSIONS: Current epidemiological evidence, albeit limited to a few studies using non-quantitative and indirect estimates and dichotomous analysis of exposures, does not lend support to public concerns that glyphosate-based pesticides might pose developmental risks to the unborn child. Nonetheless, owing to methodological limitations of existing analytical observational studies, and particularly to a lack of a direct measurement (urine and/or blood levels), or an indirect estimation of exposure that has proven valid, these negative findings cannot be taken as definitive evidence that GLY, at current levels of occupational and environmental exposures, brings no risk for human development and reproduction.

Postnatal development and resistance to Plasmodium yoelii infection of mice prenatally exposed to triphenyltin hydroxide.

In this study, we evaluated the effects of prenatal exposure to triphenyltin hydroxide (TPTH) on the postnatal development of Swiss Webster mice. Females were treated by gavage (0, 7.5 15 and 30 mg TPTH/kg/day) on days 6-17 of gestation. After birth, the progeny was examined for deaths, body weight gain and appearance of developmental landmarks. On postnatal day 50, one male and one female of each litter were inoculated with Plasmodium yoelii and the time-course of infection was monitored. TPTH was embryolethal at doses > or =15 mg/kg/day. Body weight at birth was decreased, but no alteration of pup body weight was observed after postnatal day 5. Except for an advancement of incisor eruption in the group treated with 15 mg/kg/day, no alteration of somatic development was noted. A shorter latency to peak parasitemia and a reduced malaria-induced spleen enlargement were observed in mice prenatally exposed to TPTH. In conclusion, prenatal exposure to TPTH at doses > or =15 mg/kg enhanced neonatal lethality, reduced pup birth weight and interfered with the response to infection with P. yoelii in adulthood.

Assessment of sensitization potential of monoterpenes using the rat popliteal lymph node assay.

The popliteal lymph node assay (PLNA) has been proposed as a screening test for detecting chemicals with potential of inducing allergic and auto-immune-like reactions in humans. In the present study, we used the rat PLNA to evaluate the immuno-sensitizing potential of 10 monoterpenes found in the essential oils of a variety of aromatic, edible and medicinal plants. The primary or direct PLNA was performed with the monoterpenes, and chlorpromazine (CPZ) and barbital were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Female, 7-8 week-old Wistar rats were injected subcutaneously (50 microL) with the test substance (0.5, 2.5 or 5mg) into the right hind footpad while the contralateral footpad was injected with the vehicle (DMSO) alone. Weight (WI) and cellularity (CI) indices for draining PLNs were determined 7 days after treatment. PLNA was positive (WI >or= 2 and CI >or= 5) for CPZ, citral, alpha-terpinene, beta-myrcene and (-)-alpha-pinene, and negative for barbital, DMSO, (-)-menthol, 1,8-cineole, (+/-) citronellal, (+)-limonene, (+/-) camphor and terpineol. A secondary PLNA, a T-cell priming test, was carried out with the four substances that had been positive in the primary assay. Six weeks after being locally primed with 5 mg/paw, rats were sc injected into the same footpad with a dose (0.5 mg/paw) of the substance that had been previously found to be insufficient to cause a positive response. WI and CI were then calculated 4 and 7 days after the second injection. CPZ was also positive in the secondary assay thereby confirming that it is a sensitizing agent. Citral, alpha-terpinene, beta-myrcene and (-)-alpha-pinene, however, were negative in the secondary assay. In summary, citral, alpha-terpinene, beta-myrcene and (-)-alpha-pinene induced a clear immuno-stimulatory response due to their irritant properties but no monoterpene proved to be a sensitizing agent in the PLNA.

Sexual maturation and fertility of mice exposed to triphenyltin during prepubertal and pubertal periods.

This study investigated the effects of pre- and peripubertal exposure (PND 15-45) to triphenyltin hydroxide (TPT: 0, 1.875, 3.75, 7.5 and 15 mg/kg bw/d po) on mouse sexual maturation and fertility. Half of the mice were euthanized on PND 46 and the remaining mice were submitted to fertility tests on PND 65-75. TPT caused a transient decrease of weight gain at 3.75 mg/kg bw/d, and deaths and body weight deficits at higher doses. Delays of testes descent (TD), vaginal opening (VO) and first estrus (FE) occurred at doses ≥3.75 (TD) and ≥7.5 mg/kg bw/d (VO, FE), respectively. Body weight on the days of TD, VO and FE did not differ among groups. TPT at doses ≥3.75 mg/kg decreased sperm and spermatid counts at the end of treatment (PND 46) but no alteration was noted later on PND 75. Testicular histopathology (PND 46) showed a dose-dependent reduction of seminiferous tubules diameter, a greater degree of vacuolation in Sertoli cells and germ cell degeneration and necrosis in TPT-treated mice. TPT did not affect the outcome of fertility tests. Study-derived NOAEL was 1.875 mg TPT/kg bw/d for males and 3.75 mg TPT/kg bw/d for females. The detrimental effects of TPT on spermatogenesis were reversed after treatment discontinuation.

Developmental toxicity of triphenyltin hydroxide in mice.

Triphenyltin-hydroxide (TPTH) is used as agricultural fungicide in Brazil and elsewhere. This study was undertaken to evaluate the developmental toxicity of TPTH in mice. Swiss Webster mice were treated by gavage with TPTH (0, 3.75, 7.5, 15 and 30 mg/kg bw/day) on gestation days (GD) 6-17. Caesarean sections were performed on GD 18, and implantations, resorptions and live and dead fetuses were counted. Half of each litter was fixed and examined for visceral anomalies while the remaining fetuses were cleared and stained with Alizarin Red S for skeleton evaluation. A reduced pregnancy weight gain (after subtraction of uterine weights), smaller thymus, spleen and liver, and deaths indicated that doses > or = 7.5mg/kg body wt/day were toxic to mothers. At the two highest doses, TPTH enhanced embryolethality and reduced fetal body weight. The incidence of cleft palate (not seen in controls) was augmented (36.8%) at the highest dose of TPTH, while palatine bone defects were increased at the lowest dose (3.75 mg/kg bw/day). Soft-tissue anomalies, such as misshapened thymus, and malpositioned testes and uteri, were more frequent at doses of TPTH > or = 7.5 mg/kg bw/day. TPTH also caused a dose-related increase of fetal skeleton variations (e.g. poorly ossified skull bones) and malformations (misshapened Axis and skull bones). In conclusion, TPTH was toxic to the embryos (NOAEL <3.75 mg/kg bw/day) at doses that were not overtly toxic to their mothers.

Assessing Amphotericin B polymeric nanoparticles' toxicity through Zebrafish FET test (OECD Test Guideline 236) / Avaliação da toxicidade de nanopartículas poliméricas seguindo as diretrizes do OECD TG 236 - teste de toxicidade aguda em embrião de peixe

As nanopartículas poliméricas (NPPs) têm atraído a atenção da indústria farmacêutica devido a características como a construção de modelos de liberação controlada, melhoria da biodisponibilidade e redução de efeitos adversos. A utilização do zebrafish (Danio rerio) como modelo animal para estudos toxicológicos tem aumentado nos últimos anos, e o teste de toxicidade aguda em embriões de peixes (FET), tem sido amplamente difundido, devido à rapidez na obtenção de dados e à possibilidade de estimar a DL50 para futuros testes em mamíferos. Objetivo: Investigar a toxicidade de NPPs de policaprolactona (PCL) e poli (ácido lático) (PLA). Metodologia: O teste FET foi realizado seguindo as diretrizes estabelecidas no OECD TG 236. As suspensões de NPPs foram diluídas nas concentrações desejadas com solução de meio embriônico E3. Foram utilizados 20 embriões fertilizados para cada concentração testada e também para o controle negativo. As concentrações testadas foram 4 µg/mL; 8 µg/mL; 16 µg/ml; 32 µg/ml; e 64 µg/ml. Ao final de 120 horas, os animais foram contidos em uma gota de carboximetilcelulose (CMC) a 6%, em lâmina para microscopia, com a finalidade de serem fotografados e filmados por 10 segundos. Foi construída uma escala de pontuação de 0 a 4, onde zero significa nenhuma alteração morfológica aparente; 1 representa uma alteração morfológica não letal; 2 simboliza duas alterações morfológicas não letais; 3 corresponde a mais de duas alterações morfológicas não letais; e 4 significa morte ou presença de alterações incompatíveis com a vida determinadas no guia 236. Adicionalmente, também foram realizadas medidas de tamanho corporal, diâmetro dos olhos e batimentos cardíacos por minuto (bpm). Resultados: Os grupos expostos às NPPs apresentaram óbito e/ou malformações como ausência de somitos, edema pericárdico, atraso no desenvolvimento e ausência de insuflação da bexiga natatória, porém, sem diferir estatisticamente do controle negativo. Nas análises de bpm, tamanho corporal e diâmetro ocular, as larvas também não apresentaram diferenças estatísticas em relação ao controle negativo. Conclusão: Em relação à segurança das NPPs testadas, pode-se concluir que eles se mostraram seguros, pois não apresentaram diferenças estatísticas em relação ao grupo controle em nenhuma das concentrações testadas e em nenhum dos parâmetros avaliados.