Calorie restriction in mice impairs cortical but not trabecular peak bone mass by suppressing bone remodeling.

Calorie restriction (CR) can lead to weight loss and decreased substrate availability for bone cells. Ultimately, this can lead to impaired peak bone acquisition in children and adolescence and bone loss in adults. But the mechanisms that drive diet-induced bone loss in humans are not well characterized. To explore those in greater detail, we examined the impact of 30% CR for 4 and 8 wk in both male and female 8-wk-old C57BL/6 J mice. Body composition, areal bone mineral density (aBMD), skeletal microarchitecture by micro-CT, histomorphometric parameters, and in vitro trajectories of osteoblast and adipocyte differentiation were examined. After 8 wk, CR mice lost weight and exhibited lower femoral and whole-body aBMD vs ad libitum (AL) mice. By micro-CT, CR mice had lower cortical bone area fraction vs AL mice, but males had preserved trabecular bone parameters and females showed increased bone volume fraction compared to AL mice. Histomorphometric analysis revealed that CR mice had a profound suppression in trabecular as well as endocortical and periosteal bone formation in addition to reduced bone resorption compared to AL mice. Bone marrow adipose tissue was significantly increased in CR mice. In vitro, the pace of adipogenesis in bone marrow stem cells was greatly accelerated with higher markers of adipocyte differentiation and more oil red O staining, whereas osteogenic differentiation was reduced. qRT-PCR and western blotting suggested that the expression of Wnt16 and the canonical ß-catenin pathway was compromised during CR. In sum, CR causes impaired peak cortical bone mass due to a profound suppression in bone remodeling. The increase in marrow adipocytes in vitro and in vivo is related to both progenitor recruitment and adipogenesis in the face of nutrient insufficiency. Long-term CR may lead to lower bone mass principally in the cortical envelope, possibly due to impaired Wnt signaling.

Calorie restriction led to impaired bone mass and increased accumulation of bone marrow adipose tissue. During the development of bone-fat imbalance due to calorie restriction, bone remodeling was notably inhibited. Calorie restriction may shift the differentiation of bone marrow stem cells toward adipocytes instead of osteoblasts. This process involves a disruption in the canonical Wnt signaling pathway.

Sfrp4 is required to maintain Ctsk-lineage periosteal stem cell niche function.

We have previously reported that the cortical bone thinning seen in mice lacking the Wnt signaling antagonist Sfrp4 is due in part to impaired periosteal apposition. The periosteum contains cells which function as a reservoir of stem cells and contribute to cortical bone expansion, homeostasis, and repair. However, the local or paracrine factors that govern stem cells within the periosteal niche remain elusive. Cathepsin K (Ctsk), together with additional stem cell surface markers, marks a subset of periosteal stem cells (PSCs) which possess self-renewal ability and inducible multipotency. Sfrp4 is expressed in periosteal Ctsk-lineage cells, and Sfrp4 global deletion decreases the pool of PSCs, impairs their clonal multipotency for differentiation into osteoblasts and chondrocytes and formation of bone organoids. Bulk RNA sequencing analysis of Ctsk-lineage PSCs demonstrated that Sfrp4 deletion down-regulates signaling pathways associated with skeletal development, positive regulation of bone mineralization, and wound healing. Supporting these findings, Sfrp4 deletion hampers the periosteal response to bone injury and impairs Ctsk-lineage periosteal cell recruitment. Ctsk-lineage PSCs express the PTH receptor and PTH treatment increases the % of PSCs, a response not seen in the absence of Sfrp4. Importantly, in the absence of Sfrp4, PTH-dependent increase in cortical thickness and periosteal bone formation is markedly impaired. Thus, this study provides insights into the regulation of a specific population of periosteal cells by a secreted local factor, and shows a central role for Sfrp4 in the regulation of Ctsk-lineage periosteal stem cell differentiation and function.

Comparative study in estrogen-depleted mice identifies skeletal and osteocyte transcriptomic responses to abaloparatide and teriparatide.

Osteocytes express parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related protein (PTHrP) receptors and respond to the PTHrP analog abaloparatide (ABL) and to the PTH 1-34 fragment teriparatide (TPTD), which are used to treat osteoporosis. Several studies indicate overlapping but distinct skeletal responses to ABL or TPTD, but their effects on cortical bone may differ. Little is known about their differential effects on osteocytes. We compared cortical osteocyte and skeletal responses to ABL and TPTD in sham-operated and ovariectomized mice. Administered 7 weeks after ovariectomy for 4 weeks at a dose of 40 µg/kg/d, TPTD and ABL had similar effects on trabecular bone, but ABL showed stronger effects in cortical bone. In cortical osteocytes, both treatments decreased lacunar area, reflecting altered peri-lacunar remodeling favoring matrix accumulation. Osteocyte RNA-Seq revealed that several genes and pathways were altered by ovariectomy and affected similarly by TPTD and ABL. Notwithstanding, several signaling pathways were uniquely regulated by ABL. Thus, in mice, TPTD and ABL induced a positive osteocyte peri-lacunar remodeling balance, but ABL induced stronger cortical responses and affected the osteocyte transcriptome differently. We concluded that ABL affected the cortical osteocyte transcriptome in a manner subtly different from TPTD, resulting in more beneficial remodeling/modeling changes and homeostasis of the cortex.

PTH regulates osteogenesis and suppresses adipogenesis through Zfp467 in a feed-forward, PTH1R-cyclic AMP-dependent manner.

Conditional deletion of the PTH1R in mesenchymal progenitors reduces osteoblast differentiation, enhances marrow adipogenesis, and increases zinc finger protein 467 (Zfp467) expression. In contrast, genetic loss of Zfp467 increased Pth1r expression and shifts mesenchymal progenitor cell fate toward osteogenesis and higher bone mass. PTH1R and ZFP467 could constitute a feedback loop that facilitates PTH-induced osteogenesis and that conditional deletion of Zfp467 in osteogenic precursors would lead to high bone mass in mice. Prrx1Cre; Zfp467fl/fl but not AdipoqCre; Zfp467fl/fl mice exhibit high bone mass and greater osteogenic differentiation similar to the Zfp467-/- mice. qPCR results revealed that PTH suppressed Zfp467 expression primarily via the cyclic AMP/PKA pathway. Not surprisingly, PKA activation inhibited the expression of Zfp467 and gene silencing of Pth1r caused an increase in Zfp467 mRNA transcription. Dual fluorescence reporter assays and confocal immunofluorescence demonstrated that genetic deletion of Zfp467 resulted in higher nuclear translocation of NFκB1 that binds to the P2 promoter of the Pth1r and increased its transcription. As expected, Zfp467-/- cells had enhanced production of cyclic AMP and increased glycolysis in response to exogenous PTH. Additionally, the osteogenic response to PTH was also enhanced in Zfp467-/- COBs, and the pro-osteogenic effect of Zfp467 deletion was blocked by gene silencing of Pth1r or a PKA inhibitor. In conclusion, our findings suggest that loss or PTH1R-mediated repression of Zfp467 results in a pathway that increases Pth1r transcription via NFκB1 and thus cellular responsiveness to PTH/PTHrP, ultimately leading to enhanced bone formation.

Social isolation through single housing negatively affects trabecular and cortical bone in adult male, but not female, C57BL/6J mice.

Social isolation is a potent form of psychosocial stress and is a growing public health concern, particularly among older adults. Even prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has significantly increased the prevalence of isolation and loneliness, researchers have been concerned about a rising "epidemic" of loneliness. Isolation is associated with an increased risk for many physical and mental health disorders and increased overall mortality risk. In addition to social isolation, older adults are also at greater risk for osteoporosis and related fractures. While researchers have investigated the negative effects of other forms of psychosocial stress on bone, including depression and PTSD, the effects of social isolation on bone have not been thoroughly investigated. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that social isolation would lead to bone loss in male and female C57BL/6J mice. 16-week-old mice were randomized into social isolation (1 mouse/cage) or grouped housing (4 mice/cage) for four weeks. Social isolation significantly decreased trabecular (BV/TV, BMD, Tb. N., Tb. Th.) and cortical bone (Ct.Th., Ct.Ar., Ct.Ar./Tt.Ar., pMOI) parameters in male, but not female mice. Isolated male mice had signs of reduced bone remodeling represented by reduced osteoblast numbers, osteoblast-related gene expression and osteoclast-related gene expression. However, isolated females had increased bone resorption-related gene expression, without any change in bone mass. Overall, our data suggest that social isolation has negative effects on bone in male, but not female mice, although females showed suggestive effects on bone resorption. These results provide critical insight into the effects of isolation on bone and have key clinical implications as we grapple with the long-term health impacts of the rise in social isolation related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Social Isolation Causes Cortical and Trabecular Bone Loss in Adult Male, but not Female, C57BL/6J Mice.

Social isolation is a potent form of psychosocial stress and is a growing public health concern, particularly among older adults. Even prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has significantly increased the prevalence of isolation and loneliness, researchers have been concerned about a rising "epidemic" of loneliness. Isolation is associated with an increased risk for many physical and mental health disorders and increased overall mortality risk. In addition to social isolation, older adults are also at greater risk for osteoporosis and related fractures. While researchers have investigated the negative effects of other forms of psychosocial stress on bone, including depression and PTSD, the effects of social isolation on bone have not been thoroughly investigated. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that social isolation would lead to bone loss in male and female C57BL/6J mice. 16-week-old mice were randomized into social isolation (1 mouse/cage) or grouped housing (4 mice/cage) for four weeks (N=16/group). Social isolation significantly decreased trabecular (BV/TV, BMD, Tb. N., Tb. Th.) and cortical bone (Ct.Th., Ct.Ar., Ct.Ar./Tt.Ar., pMOI, Ct.Por.) parameters in male, but not female mice. Isolated male mice had signs of reduced bone remodeling represented by reduced osteoblast numbers, osteoblast-related gene expression and osteoclast-related gene expression. However, isolated females had increased bone resorption-related gene expression, without any change in bone mass. Overall, our data suggest that social isolation has negative effects on bone in males, but not females, although females showed suggestive effects on bone resorption. These results provide critical insight into the effects of isolation on bone and have key clinical implications as we grapple with the long-term health impacts of the rise in social isolation related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

R-spondin 3 deletion induces Erk phosphorylation to enhance Wnt signaling and promote bone formation in the appendicular skeleton.

Activation of Wnt signaling leads to high bone density. The R-spondin family of four secreted glycoproteins (Rspo1-4) amplifies Wnt signaling. In humans, RSPO3 variants are strongly associated with bone density. Here, we investigated the role of Rspo3 in skeletal homeostasis in mice. Using a comprehensive set of mouse genetic and mechanistic studies, we show that in the appendicular skeleton, Rspo3 haplo-insufficiency and Rspo3 targeted deletion in Runx2+ osteoprogenitors lead to an increase in trabecular bone mass, with increased number of osteoblasts and bone formation. In contrast and highlighting the complexity of Wnt signaling in the regulation of skeletal homeostasis, we show that Rspo3 deletion in osteoprogenitors results in the opposite phenotype in the axial skeleton, i.e., low vertebral trabecular bone mass. Mechanistically, Rspo3 deficiency impairs the inhibitory effect of Dkk1 on Wnt signaling activation and bone mass. We demonstrate that Rspo3 deficiency leads to activation of Erk signaling which in turn, stabilizes ß-catenin and Wnt signaling activation. Our data demonstrate that Rspo3 haplo-insufficiency/deficiency boosts canonical Wnt signaling by activating Erk signaling, to favor osteoblastogenesis, bone formation, and bone mass.

Periosteal stem cells control growth plate stem cells during postnatal skeletal growth.

The ontogeny and fate of stem cells have been extensively investigated by lineage-tracing approaches. At distinct anatomical sites, bone tissue harbors multiple types of skeletal stem cells, which may independently supply osteogenic cells in a site-specific manner. Periosteal stem cells (PSCs) and growth plate resting zone stem cells (RZSCs) critically contribute to intramembranous and endochondral bone formation, respectively. However, it remains unclear whether there is functional crosstalk between these two types of skeletal stem cells. Here we show PSCs are not only required for intramembranous bone formation, but also for the growth plate maintenance and prolonged longitudinal bone growth. Mice deficient in PSCs display progressive defects in intramembranous and endochondral bone formation, the latter of which is caused by a deficiency in PSC-derived Indian hedgehog (Ihh). PSC-specific deletion of Ihh impairs the maintenance of the RZSCs, leading to a severe defect in endochondral bone formation in postnatal life. Thus, crosstalk between periosteal and growth plate stem cells is essential for post-developmental skeletal growth.

Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 2 null mice (Igfbp2-/-) are protected against trabecular bone loss after vertical sleeve gastrectomy.

BACKGROUND: Bariatric surgery has been shown to result in weight loss, improved hemoglobin A1C, and decreased mortality but can also lead to bone loss and increased fracture rates. Serum IGFBP-2 is elevated in patients after bariatric surgery and although it may lead to improved blood glucose, may also drive bone resorption, and inhibit IGF-I action. This study tested the hypothesis that Igfbp2-/- mice were acutely protected from bone loss after vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG). METHODS: Thirty-four mice, 17 Igfbp2-/- and 17 + / + underwent a hand-sewn VSG or sham surgery, at 16 weeks of age. Mice were harvested at 20 weeks of age. DXA was measured for body composition, areal bone mineral density (aBMD), areal bone mineral content (aBMC), femoral bone mineral density (fBMD), and femoral bone mineral content (fBMC) at 15, 18, and 20 weeks of age. Micro-computed tomography and serum ELISA assays were measured and analyzed at 20 weeks of age. RESULTS: Both Igfbp2-/- and + / + mice lost significant weight (P = 0.0251, P = 0.0003, respectively) and total fat mass (P = 0.0082, P = 0.0004, respectively) at 4 weeks after VSG. Igfbp2+/+ mice lost significant aBMD, fBMD, fBMC, trabecular BMD, trabecular BV/TV and cortical tissue mineral density (P = 0.0150, P = 0.0313, P = 0.0190, P = 0.0072, and 0.0320 respectively). The Igfbp2-/- mice did not show significant bone loss in these parameters nor in trabecular BV/TV. Both Igfbp2-/- and + / + mice had less cortical bone area (P = 0.0181, P = < .00001), cortical area over total area (P = 0.0085, P = 0.0007), and cortical thickness (P = 0.0050, P = < 0.0001), respectively. Igfbp2+/+ mice demonstrated significantly lower polar, minimum, and maximum moments of inertia (P = 0.0031, P = 0.0239, and P = 0.0037, respectively). Igfbp2+/+ had significantly higher levels of IGFBP-2 at 2 weeks postoperatively after VSG (P = 0.035), and elevated levels of CTx and P1NP (P = 0.0127, P = 0.0058, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Igfbp2-/- mice were protected against trabecular bone loss and had attenuated cortical bone loss 4 weeks after VSG.

Propranolol Promotes Bone Formation and Limits Resorption Through Novel Mechanisms During Anabolic Parathyroid Hormone Treatment in Female C57BL/6J Mice.

Although the nonselective ß-blocker, propranolol, improves bone density with parathyroid hormone (PTH) treatment in mice, the mechanism of this effect is unclear. To address this, we used a combination of in vitro and in vivo approaches to address how propranolol influences bone remodeling in the context of PTH treatment. In female C57BL/6J mice, intermittent PTH and propranolol administration had complementary effects in the trabecular bone of the distal femur and fifth lumbar vertebra (L5 ), with combination treatment achieving microarchitectural parameters beyond that of PTH alone. Combined treatment improved the serum bone formation marker, procollagen type 1 N propeptide (P1NP), but did not impact other histomorphometric parameters relating to osteoblast function at the L5 . In vitro, propranolol amplified the acute, PTH-induced, intracellular calcium signal in osteoblast-like cells. The most striking finding, however, was suppression of PTH-induced bone resorption. Despite this, PTH-induced receptor activator of nuclear factor κ-B ligand (RANKL) mRNA and protein levels were unaltered by propranolol, which led us to hypothesize that propranolol could act directly on osteoclasts. Using in situ methods, we found Adrb2 expression in osteoclasts in vivo, suggesting ß-blockers may directly impact osteoclasts. Consistent with this, we found propranolol directly suppresses osteoclast differentiation in vitro. Taken together, this work suggests a strong anti-osteoclastic effect of nonselective ß-blockers in vivo, indicating that combining propranolol with PTH could be beneficial to patients with extremely low bone density. © 2022 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Sfrp4 and the Biology of Cortical Bone.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Periosteal apposition and endosteal remodeling regulate cortical bone expansion and thickness, both critical determinants of bone strength. Yet, the cellular characteristics and local or paracrine factors that regulate the periosteum and endosteum remain largely elusive. Here we discuss novel insights in cortical bone growth, expansion, and homeostasis, provided by the study of Secreted Frizzled Receptor Protein 4 (Sfrp4), a decoy receptor for Wnt ligands. RECENT FINDINGS: SFRP4 loss-of function mutations cause Pyle disease, a rare skeletal disorder characterized by cortical bone thinning and increased fragility fractures despite increased trabecular bone density. On the endosteal surface, Sfrp4-mediated repression of non-canonical Wnt signaling regulates endosteal resorption. On the periosteum, Sfrp4 identifies as a critical functional mediator of periosteal stem cell/progenitor expansion and differentiation. Analysis of signaling pathways regulating skeletal stem cells/progenitors provides an opportunity to advance our understanding of the mechanisms involved in cortical bone biology.

Marrow aspiration in aged mice: intramedullary osteogenesis, reduced mechano-adaptation, increased marrow fat.

Introduction: With age, the number of adipocytes and osteoclasts increases, the number of osteoblasts decreases, and mechano-adaptation is impaired.Objectives: Using marrow aspiration, which has a known osteogenic effect in young mice, we sought to recruit osteoblast progenitors to mediate the mechano-adaptive response to in vivo tibial loading.Methods: First, we assessed bone formation and marrow adiposity in the tibiae of old mice (>20 months) sacrificed 1, 2, and 4 weeks after unilateral marrow aspiration. Then, we examined the effects of marrow aspiration on mechano-adaptation in aged mice using tibial loading.Results: Two weeks after aspiration, aspirated tibiae had more bone than contralateral tibiae due to the formation of bone in the medullary canal. Two weeks and four weeks after marrow aspiration, the volume of marrow adipose tissue was higher in the aspirated tibiae, compared to contralateral tibiae. Histomorphometry indicated that aspiration increased non-periosteal (endosteal, intracortical, intramedullary) bone formation, compared to the contralateral tibia.  Mice with marrow aspiration had reduced periosteal bone formation in the contralateral tibia, compared to mice that had loading alone. Loading-induced periosteal bone formation was higher in mice that had loading alone, compared to mice that had aspiration + loading, indicating that aspiration further reduced the mechano-adaptive response.Conclusion: These data demonstrate that, in old mice, bone forms in the medullary canal following aspiration. Adiposity is increased following marrow aspiration, and periosteal mechano-adaptation is reduced.

Deletion of the sodium/hydrogen exchanger 6 causes low bone volume in adult mice.

The sodium/hydrogen exchanger 6 (NHE6) localizes to recycling endosomes, where it mediates endosomal alkalinization through K+/H+ exchange. Mutations in the SLC9A6 gene encoding NHE6 cause severe X-linked mental retardation, epilepsy, autism and corticobasal degeneration in humans. Patients with SLC9A6 mutations exhibit skeletal malformations, and a previous study suggested a key role of NHE6 in osteoblast-mediated mineralization. The goal of this study was to explore the role of NHE6 in bone homeostasis. To this end, we studied the bone phenotype of NHE6 knock-out mice by microcomputed tomography, quantitative histomorphometry and complementary ex vivo and in vitro studies. We detected NHE6 transcript and protein in both differentiated osteoclasts and mineralizing osteoblasts. In vitro studies with osteoclasts and osteoblasts derived from NHE6 knock-out mice demonstrated normal osteoclast differentiation and osteoblast proliferation without an impairment in mineralization capacity. Microcomputed tomography and bone histomorphometry studies showed a significantly reduced bone volume and trabecular number as well as an increased trabecular space at lumbar vertebrae of 6 months old NHE6 knock-out mice. The bone degradation marker c-terminal telopeptides of type I collagen was unaltered in NHE6 knock-out mice. However, we observed a reduction of the bone formation marker procollagen type 1 N-terminal propeptide, and increased circulating sclerostin levels in NHE6 knock-out mice. Subsequent studies revealed a significant upregulation of sclerostin transcript expression in both primary calvarial cultures and femora derived from NHE6 knock-out mice. Thus, loss of NHE6 in mice causes an increase of sclerostin expression associated with reduced bone formation and low bone volume.

Characterization of unique functionalities in c-Src domains required for osteoclast podosome belt formation.

Deletion of c-Src, a ubiquitously expressed tyrosine kinase, results in osteoclast dysfunction and osteopetrosis, in which bones harden into "stone." In contrast, deletion of the genes encoding other members of the Src family kinase (SFK) fails to produce an osteopetrotic phenotype. This suggests that c-Src performs a unique function in the osteoclast that cannot be compensated for by other SFKs. We aimed to identify the molecular basis of this unique role in osteoclasts and bone resorption. We found that c-Src, Lyn, and Fyn were the most highly expressed SFKs in WT osteoclasts, whereas Hck, Lck, Blk, and Fgr displayed low levels of expression. Formation of the podosome belt, clusters of unique actin assemblies, was disrupted in src-/- osteoclasts; introduction of constitutively activated SFKs revealed that only c-Src and Fyn could restore this process. To identify the key structural domains responsible, we constructed chimeric Src-Hck and Src-Lyn constructs in which the unique, SH3, SH2, or catalytic domains had been swapped. We found that the Src unique, SH3, and kinase domains were each crucial to establish Src functionality. The SH2 domain could however be substituted with Lyn or Hck SH2 domains. Furthermore, we demonstrate that c-Src's functionality is, in part, derived from an SH3-proximal proline-rich domain interaction with c-Cbl, leading to phosphorylation of c-Cbl Tyr700. These data help clarify Src's unique functionality in the organization of the cytoskeleton in osteoclasts, required for efficient bone resorption and explain why c-Src cannot be replaced, in osteoclasts, by other SFKs.

RANKL regulates male reproductive function.

Infertile men have few treatment options. Here, we demonstrate that the transmembrane receptor activator of NF-kB ligand (RANKL) signaling system is active in mouse and human testis. RANKL is highly expressed in Sertoli cells and signals through RANK, expressed in most germ cells, whereas the RANKL-inhibitor osteoprotegerin (OPG) is expressed in germ and peritubular cells. OPG treatment increases wild-type mouse sperm counts, and mice with global or Sertoli-specific genetic suppression of Rankl have increased male fertility and sperm counts. Moreover, RANKL levels in seminal fluid are high and distinguishes normal from infertile men with higher specificity than total sperm count. In infertile men, one dose of Denosumab decreases RANKL seminal fluid concentration and increases serum Inhibin-B and anti-Müllerian-hormone levels, but semen quality only in a subgroup. This translational study suggests that RANKL is a regulator of male reproductive function, however, predictive biomarkers for treatment-outcome requires further investigation in placebo-controlled studies.

Synergistic roles of Wnt modulators R-spondin2 and R-spondin3 in craniofacial morphogenesis and dental development.

Wnt signaling plays a critical role in craniofacial patterning, as well as tooth and bone development. Rspo2 and Rspo3 are key regulators of Wnt signaling. However, their coordinated function and relative requirement in craniofacial development and odontogensis are poorly understood. We showed that in zebrafish rspo2 and rspo3 are both expressed in osteoprogenitors in the embryonic craniofacial skeleton. This is in contrast to mouse development, where Rspo3 is expressed in osteoprogenitors while Rspo2 expression is not observed. In zebrafish, rspo2 and rspo3 are broadly expressed in the pulp, odontoblasts and epithelial crypts. However, in the developing molars of the mouse, Rspo3 is largely expressed in the dental follicle and alveolar mesenchyme while Rspo2 expression is restricted to the tooth germ. While Rspo3 ablation in the mouse is embryonic lethal, zebrafish rspo3-/- mutants are viable with modest decrease in Meckel's cartilage rostral length. However, compound disruption of rspo3 and rspo2 revealed synergistic roles of these genes in cartilage morphogenesis, fin development, and pharyngeal tooth development. Adult rspo3-/- zebrafish mutants exhibit a dysmorphic cranial skeleton and decreased average tooth number. This study highlights the differential functions of Rspo2 and Rspo3 in dentocranial morphogenesis in zebrafish and in mouse.

Inhibition of longevity regulator PAPP-A modulates tissue homeostasis via restraint of mesenchymal stromal cells.

Pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A) is a secreted metalloprotease that increases insulin-like growth factor (IGF) availability by cleaving IGF-binding proteins. Reduced IGF signaling extends longevity in multiple species, and consistent with this, PAPP-A deletion extends lifespan and healthspan; however, the mechanism remains unclear. To clarify PAPP-A's role, we developed a PAPP-A neutralizing antibody and treated adult mice with it. Transcriptomic profiling across tissues showed that anti-PAPP-A reduced IGF signaling and extracellular matrix (ECM) gene expression system wide. The greatest reduction in IGF signaling occurred in the bone marrow, where we found reduced bone, marrow adiposity, and myelopoiesis. These diverse effects led us to search for unifying mechanisms. We identified mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) as the source of PAPP-A in bone marrow and primary responders to PAPP-A inhibition. Mice treated with anti-PAPP-A had reduced IGF signaling in MSCs and dramatically decreased MSC number. As MSCs are (1) a major source of ECM and the progenitors of ECM-producing fibroblasts, (2) the originating source of adult bone, (3) regulators of marrow adiposity, and (4) an essential component of the hematopoietic niche, our data suggest that PAPP-A modulates bone marrow homeostasis by potentiating the number and activity of MSCs. We found that MSC-like cells are the major source of PAPP-A in other tissues also, suggesting that reduced MSC-like cell activity drives the system-wide reduction in ECM gene expression due to PAPP-A inhibition. Dysregulated ECM production is associated with aging and drives age-related diseases, and thus, this may be a mechanism by which PAPP-A deficiency enhances longevity.

Early B-cell Factor1 (Ebf1) promotes early osteoblast differentiation but suppresses osteoblast function.

Early B cell factor 1 (Ebf1) is a transcription factor that regulates B cell, neuronal cell and adipocyte differentiation. We and others have shown that Ebf1 is expressed in osteoblasts and that global deletion of Ebf1 results in increased bone formation in vivo. However, as Ebf1 is expressed in multiple tissues and cell types, it has remained unclear, which of the phenotypic changes in bone are derived from bone cells. The aim of this study was to determine the cell-autonomous and differentiation stage-specific roles of Ebf1 in osteoblasts. In vitro, haploinsufficient Ebf1+/- calvarial cells showed impaired osteoblastic differentiation indicated by lower alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and reduced mRNA expression of osteoblastic genes, while overexpression of Ebf1 in wild type mouse calvarial cells led to enhanced osteoblast differentiation with increased expression of Osterix (Osx). We identified a putative Ebf1 binding site in the Osterix promoter by ChIP assay in MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts and showed that Ebf1 was able to activate Osx-luc reporter construct that included this Ebf1 binding site, suggesting that Ebf1 indeed regulates osteoblast differentiation by inducing Osterix expression. To reconcile our previous data and that of others with our novel findings, we hypothesized that Ebf1 could have a dual role in osteoblast differentiation promoting early but inhibiting late stages of differentiation and osteoblast function. To test this hypothesis in vivo, we generated conditional Ebf1 knockout mice, in which Ebf1 deletion was targeted to early or late osteoblasts by crossing Ebf1fl/fl mice with Osx- or Osteocalcin (hOC)-Cre mouse lines, respectively. Deletion of Ebf1 in early Ebf1Osx-/- osteoblasts resulted in significantly increased bone volume and trabecular number at 12 weeks by µCT analysis, while Ebf1hOC-/- mice did not have a bone phenotype. To conclude, our data demonstrate that Ebf1 promotes early osteoblast differentiation by regulating Osterix expression. However, Ebf1 inhibits bone accrual in the Osterix expressing osteoblasts in vivo but it is redundant in the maintenance of mature osteoblast function.

Abaloparatide treatment increases bone formation, bone density and bone strength without increasing bone resorption in a rat model of hindlimb unloading.

Disuse osteoporosis can result from prolonged bed rest, paralysis, casts, braces, fractures and other conditions. Abaloparatide (ABL) is a PTHrP analog that increases bone density and strength by stimulating osteogenesis with limited effects on bone resorption. We examined skeletal responses to abaloparatide in young adult male rats with normal weight-bearing and with hindlimb unloading via a pelvic harness. Rats were allocated to four groups (10-12 per group): normal weight-bearing plus vehicle treatment (CON-VEH), normal weight-bearing plus ABL treatment (CON-ABL), hindlimb-unloading plus vehicle (HLU-VEH), or hindlimb-unloading plus ABL (HLU-ABL). Rats received ABL (25 µg/kg/day, s.c.) or vehicle throughout the 28-day unloading period and were then sacrificed, at which time HLU-VEH rats exhibited reduced bone formation and significant deficits in tibial, femoral, and vertebral bone mass compared with CON-VEH. ABL treatment increased serum osteocalcin in CON and HLU animals while having no effect on the osteoclast marker TRACP-5b. Longitudinal peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) indicated that ABL increased trabecular and cortical bone mass in the tibia. ABL was also associated with improved trabecular and cortical bone mass and architectural parameters at the femur, tibia, and vertebrae by µCT. Tibial histomorphometry indicated increased trabecular and endocortical bone formation with HLU-ABL versus HLU-VEH and with CON-ABL versus CON-VEH, and ABL was also associated with lower trabecular and endocortical osteoclast surfaces. Vertebral finite element analysis indicated higher ultimate load and stiffness for CON-ABL versus CON-VEH and for HLU-ABL versus HLU-VEH. In summary, ABL was associated with improved trabecular and cortical bone density and architecture in normal weight-bearing and hindlimb-unloaded rats, with higher bone formation and no difference in bone resorption. ABL was also associated with improved bone biomechanical parameters. These results provide rationale for investigating the ability of abaloparatide to prevent or treat disuse osteoporosis in humans.

The role of Zfp467 in mediating the pro-osteogenic and anti-adipogenic effects on bone and bone marrow niche.

Conditional deletion of the PTH receptor (Pth1r) in mesenchymal progenitors reduces osteoblast differentiation and bone mass while enhancing adipogenesis and bone marrow adipose tissue. Mechanistically, PTH suppresses the expression of Zfp467, a pro-adipogenic zinc finger transcription factor. Consequently, Pth1r deficiency in mesenchymal progenitors leads to increased Zfp467 expression. Based on these observations, we hypothesized that genetic loss of Zfp467 would lead to a shift in marrow progenitor cell fate towards osteogenesis and increased bone mass. To test this hypothesis, we generated Zfp467-/- mice. Zfp467-/- mice (-/-) were significantly smaller than Zfp467+/+ mice (+/+). µCT showed significantly higher trabecular bone and cortical bone area in -/- vs. +/+, and histomorphometry showed higher structural and dynamic formation parameters in -/- mice vs. +/+. Femoral gene expression including Alpl, Sp7, and Acp5 were increased in -/-mice, whereas Adiponectin, Cebpa, Lepr, and Ppraγ mRNA were lower in -/- mice. Similarly, Fabp4 and Lep in the inguinal depot were also decreased in -/- mice. Moreover, marrow adipocyte numbers were reduced in -/- vs +/+ mice (p<0.007). In vitro, COBs and BMSCs-/- showed more positive ALP and Alizarin Red staining and a decrease in ORO droplets. Pth1r mRNA and protein levels were increased in COBs and BMSCs from -/- mice vs +/+ (p<0.02 for each parameter, -/- vs. +/+). -/- cells also exhibited enhanced endogenous levels of cAMP vs. control cells. Moreover, in an ovariectomy (OVX) mouse model, Zfp467-/- mice had significantly lower fat mass but similar bone mass compared to OVX +/+ mice. In contrast, in a high fat diet (HFD) mouse model, in addition to reduced adipocyte volume and adipogenesis related gene expression in both peripheral and bone marrow fat tissue, greater osteoblast number and higher osteogenesis related gene expression were also observed in -/- HFD mice vs. +/+ HFD mice. Taken together, these results demonstrate that ZFP467 negatively influences skeletal homeostasis and favors adipogenesis. Global deletion of Zfp467 increases PTHR1, cAMP and bone turnover, hence its repression is a component of PTH signaling and its regulation. These data support a critical role for Zfp467 in early lineage allocation and provide a novel potential mechanism by which PTH acts in an anabolic manner on the bone remodeling unit.