Rapid detection and quantitation of dipicolinic acid from Clostridium botulinum spores using mixed-mode liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

Analysis of the dipicolinic acid (DPA) released from Clostridium botulinum spores during thermal processing is crucial to obtaining a mechanistic understanding of the factors involved in spore heat resistance and related food safety applications. Here, we developed a novel mixed-mode liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for detection of the DPA released from C. botulinum type A, nonproteolytic types B and F strains, and nonpathogenic surrogate Clostridium sporogenes PA3679 spores. DPA was retained on a mixed-mode C18/anion exchange column and was detected using electrospray ionization (ESI) positive mode within a 4-min analysis time. The intraday and interday precision (%CV) was 1.94-3.46% and 4.04-8.28%, respectively. Matrix effects were minimal across proteolytic type A Giorgio-A, nonproteolytic types QC-B and 202-F, and C. sporogenes PA3679 spore suspensions (90.1-114% of spiked DPA concentrations). DPA recovery in carrot juice and beef broth ranged from 105 to 118%, indicating limited matrix effects of these food products. Experiments that assessed the DPA released from Giorgio-A spores over the course of a 5-min thermal treatment at 108 °C found a significant correlation (R = 0.907; P < 0.05) between the log reduction of spores and amount of DPA released. This mixed-mode LC-MS/MS method provides a means for rapid detection of DPA released from C. botulinum spores during thermal processing and has the potential to be used for experiments in the field of food safety that assess the thermal resistance characteristics of various C. botulinum spore types.

Evidence for Bacillus cereus Spores as the Target Pathogen in Thermally Processed Extended Shelf Life Refrigerated Foods.

The microbial safety concern associated with thermally processed extended shelf life (ESL) refrigerated foods is based on adequate elimination of spore-forming pathogens such as nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum types B, E, and F. These pathogens are traditionally regarded as targets for validation of thermally processed ESL foods. However, their use for research is restricted due to their designation as select agents. In this study, the thermal resistances of spores of 10 nonproteolytic C. botulinum types B and F and seven psychrotrophic Bacillus cereus strains were evaluated in ACES (N-(2-acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) buffer (0.05 M, pH 7.00) and compared to determine whether any of the B. cereus strains could serve as a nonselect agent for establishing thermal processes for ESL refrigerated foods. Thermal decimal reduction times (DT-values) of both nonproteolytic C. botulinum types B and F and psychrotrophic B. cereus strains decreased as process temperature increased from 80 to 91°C, and the highest values were obtained at 80°C. All psychrotrophic B. cereus strains tested were more thermally resistant than nonproteolytic C. botulinum types B and F. DT-values of nonproteolytic C. botulinum types B and F decreased to <1.0 min at 87°C, whereas all psychrotrophic B. cereus strains had higher DT-values (i.e., 52.35 to 133.69 min) at the same temperature. Among all psychrotrophic B. cereus strains tested, BC-6A16 had the highest DT-values at any given temperature. The DT-values indicated that the psychrotrophic B. cereus strains were more thermally resistant than the nonproteolytic C. botulinum strains and therefore may be potential target pathogens for thermal process validation of ESL refrigerated foods. However, further comparative challenge studies are needed with a model food system or an ESL refrigerated food to confirm these results.

Closed Genome Sequence of Clostridium botulinum Strain CFSAN064329 (62A).

Clostridium botulinum is a strictly anaerobic, Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium that produces botulinum neurotoxin, a potent and deadly proteinaceous exotoxin. Clostridium botulinum strain CFSAN064329 (62A) produces an A1 serotype/subtype botulinum neurotoxin and is frequently utilized in food challenge and detection studies. We report here the closed genome sequence of Clostridium botulinum strain CFSAN064329 (62A).

Effect of High Pressures in Combination with Temperature on the Inactivation of Spores of Nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum Types B and F.

The impact of high pressure processing on the inactivation of spores of nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum is important in extended shelf life chilled low-acid foods. The three most resistant C. botulinum strains (Ham-B, Kap 9-B, and 610-F) were selected for comparison of their thermal and pressure-assisted thermal resistance after screening 17 nonproteolytic C. botulinum strains (8 type B, 7 type E, and 2 type F). Spores of strains Ham-B, Kap 9-B, and 610-F were prepared using a biphasic media method, diluted in N-(2-acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (ACES) buffer (0.05 M, pH 7.00) to 105 to 106 CFU/mL, placed into a modified sterile transfer pipette, heat sealed, and subjected to a combination of high pressures (600 to 750 MPa) and high temperatures (80 to 91°C) using laboratory and pilot-scale pressure test systems. Diluted spores from the same crops were placed in nuclear magnetic resonance tubes, which were heat sealed, and subjected to 80 to 91°C in a Fluke 7321 high precision bath with Duratheram S oil as the heat transfer fluid. After incubation for 3 months, survivors in both studies were determined by the five-tube most-probable-number method using Trypticase-peptone-glucose-yeast extract broth. The highest (>5.0) log reductions in spore counts for Ham-B, Kap 9-B, and 610-F occurred at the highest temperature and pressure combination tested (91°C and 750 MPa). Thermal D-values of Ham-B, Kap 9-B, and 610-F decreased as the process temperature increased from 80 to 87°C, decreasing to <1.0 min at 87°C for these strains. Pressure-assisted thermal D-values of Ham-B, Kap 9-B, and 610-F decreased as the process temperature increased from 80 to 91°C with any pressure combination and decreased to <1.0 min as the pressure increased from 600 to 750 MPa at 91°C. Based on the pressure-assisted thermal D-values, pressure exerted a more protective effect on spores of Ham-B, Kap 9-B, and 610-F when processed at 83 to 91°C combined with pressures of 600 to 700 MPa when compared with thermal treatment only. No protective effect was observed when the spores of Ham-B, Kap9-B, and 610-F were treated at lower temperatures (80 to 83°C) in combination with 750 MPa. However, at higher temperatures (87 to 91°C) in combination with 750 MPa, a protective effect was seen for Ham-B, Kap9-B, and 610-F spores based on the calculated pressure-assisted thermal D-values.

Thermal and Pressure-Assisted Thermal Destruction Kinetics for Spores of Type A Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium sporogenes PA3679.

The purpose of this study was to determine the inactivation kinetics of the spores of the most resistant proteolytic Clostridium botulinum strains (Giorgio-A and 69-A, as determined from an earlier screening study) and of Clostridium sporogenes PA3679 and to compare the thermal and pressure-assisted thermal resistance of these spores. Spores of these strains were prepared using a biphasic medium method. C. sporogenes PA3679 spores were heat treated before spore preparation. Using laboratory-scale and pilot-scale pressure test systems, spores of Giorgio-A, 69-A, and PA3679 suspended in ACES [N-(2-acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid] buffer (pH 7.0) were exposed to various combinations of temperature (93 to 121°C) and pressure (0.1 to 750 MPa) to determine their resistance. More than a 5-log reduction occurred after 3 min at 113°C for spores of Giorgio-A and 69-A and after 5 min at 117°C for spores of PA3679. A combination of high temperatures (93 to 121°C) and pressures yielded greater log reductions of spores of Giorgio-A, 69-A, and PA3679 compared with reduction obtained with high temperatures alone. No survivors from initial levels (>5.0 log CFU) of Giorgio-A and 69-A were detected when processed at a combination of high temperature (117 and 121°C) and high pressure (600 and 750 MPa) for <1 min in a pilot-scale pressure test system. Increasing pressure from 600 to 750 MPa at 117°C decreased the time from 2.7 to 1 min for a >4.5-log reduction of PA3679 spores. Thermal D-values of Giorgio-A, 69-A, and PA3679 spores decreased (i.e., 29.1 to 0.33 min for Giorgio-A, 40.5 to 0.27 min for 69-A, and 335.2 to 2.16 min for PA3679) as the temperature increased from 97 to 117°C. Pressure-assisted thermal D-values of Giorgio-A, 69-A, and PA3679 also decreased as temperature increased from 97 to 121°C at both pressures (600 and 750 MPa) (i.e., 17.19 to 0.15 min for Giorgio-A, 9.58 to 0.15 min for 69-A, and 12.93 to 0.33 min for PA3679 at 600 MPa). At higher temperatures (117 or 121°C), increasing pressure from 600 to 750 MPa had an effect on pressure-assisted thermal D-values of PA3679 (i.e., at 117°C, pressure-assisted thermal D-value decreased from 0.55 to 0.28 min as pressure increased from 600 to 750 MPa), but pressure had no effect on pressure-assisted thermal D-values of Giorgio-A and 69-A. When compared with Giorgio-A and 69-A, PA3679 had higher thermal and pressure-assisted thermal D-values. C. sporogenes PA3679 spores were generally more resistant to combinations of high pressure and high temperature than were the spores of the C. botulinum strains tested in this study.

Effect of sporulation temperature on the resistance of Clostridium botulinum type A spores to thermal and high pressure processing.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of sporulation temperature on the resistance of Clostridium botulinum type A spores of strains 62A and GiorgioA to thermal and high pressure processing (HPP). Spore crops produced in Trypticase-peptone-glucose-yeast extract broth at four incubation temperatures (20, 27, 37, and 41°C) were harvested, and heat resistance studies were conducted at 105°C (strain 62A) and 100°C (strain GiorgioA). Resistance to HPP was evaluated by subjecting the spores to a high pressure (700 MPa) and temperature combination (105°C, strain 62A; 100°C strain GiorgioA) in a laboratory-scale pressure test system. The decimal reduction time (D-value) was calculated using the log-linear model. Although the time to sporulation for GiorgioA was shorter and resulted in higher spore concentrations than for 62A at 20, 27, and 37°C, GiorgioA did not produce a sufficient spore crop at 41°C to be evaluated. The heat resistance of 62A spores was greatest when produced at 27°C and decreased for spore crops produced above or below 27°C (D105°C-values: 20°C, 1.9 min; 27°C, 4.03 min; 37°C, 3.66 min; and 41°C, 3.5 min; P < 0.05). Unlike 62A, the heat resistance behavior of GiorgioA spores increased with rising sporulation temperature, and spores formed at the organism's optimum growth temperature of 37°C were the most resistant (D100°C-values: 20°C, 3.4 min; 27°C, 5.08 min; and 37°C, 5.65 min; P < 0.05). Overall, all spore crops were less resistant to pressure-assisted thermal processing than thermal treatment alone. Sporulation temperature has an effect on the resistance of C. botulinum spores to heat and HPP, and is characteristic to a particular strain. Knowledge of the effect of sporulation temperature on the resistance of C. botulinum spores is vital for the production of spores utilized in thermal and high pressure inactivation studies.

Combined high pressure and thermal processing on inactivation of type E and nonproteolytic type B and F spores of Clostridium botulinum.

The aim of this study was to determine the resistance of multiple strains of the three nonproteolytic types of Clostridium botulinum (seven strains of type E, eight of type B, and two of type F) spores exposed to combined high pressure and thermal processing. The resistance of spores suspended in N-(2-acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (ACES) buffer (0.05 M, pH 7) was determined at a process temperature of 80°C with high pressures of 600, 650, and 700 MPa using a laboratory-scale pressure test system. Spores of C. botulinum serotype E strains demonstrated less resistance than nonproteolytic spores of type B or F strains when processed at 80°C and 600 MPa for up to 15 min. All C. botulinum type E strains were reduced by . 6.0 log units within 5 min under these conditions. Among the nonproteolytic type B strains, KAP 9-B was the most resistant, resulting in reductions of 2.7, 5.3, and 5.5 log, coinciding with D-values of 7.7, 3.4, and 1.8 min at 80°C and 600, 650, and 700 MPa, respectively. Of the two nonproteolytic type F strains, 610F was the most resistant, showing 2.6-, 4.5-, and 5.3-log reductions with D-values of 8.9, 4.3, and 1.8 min at 80°C and 600, 650, and 700 MPa, respectively. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis was performed to examine the genetic relatedness of strains tested and to determine if strains with similar banding patterns also exhibited similar D-values. No correlation between the genetic fingerprint of a particular strain and its resistance to high pressure processing was observed.

Combined high pressure and thermal processing on inactivation of type A and proteolytic type B spores of Clostridium botulinum.

The aim of this study was to determine the resistance of multiple strains of Clostridium botulinum type A and proteolytic type B spores exposed to combined high pressure and thermal processing and compare their resistance with Clostridium sporogenes PA3679 and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens TMW-2.479-Fad-82 spores. The resistance of spores suspended in N-(2acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid (ACES) buffer (0.05 M, pH 7.0) was determined at a process temperature of 105°C, with high pressures of 600, 700, and 750 MPa by using a laboratory-scale pressure test system. No surviving spores of the proteolytic B strains were detected after processing at 105°C and 700 MPa for 6 min. A . 7-log reduction of B. amyloliquefaciens spores was observed when processed for 4 min at 105°C and 700 MPa. D-values at 105°C and 700 MPa for type A strains ranged from 0.57 to 2.28 min. C. sporogenes PA3679 had a D-value of 1.48 min at 105°C and 700 MPa. Spores of the six type A strains with high D-values along with C. sporogenes PA3679 and B. amyloliquefaciens were further evaluated for their pressure resistance at pressures 600 and 750 MPa at 105°C. As the process pressure increased from 600 to 750 MPa at 105°C, D-values of some C. botulinum strains and C. sporogenes PA3679 spores decreased (i.e., 69-A, 1.91 to 1.33 min and PA3679, 2.35 to 1.29 min). Some C. botulinum type A strains were more resistant than C. sporogenes PA3679 and B. amyloliquefaciens to combined high pressure and heat, based on D-values determined at 105°C. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) was also performed to establish whether strains with a similar restriction banding pattern also exhibited similar D-values. However, no correlation between the genomic background of a strain and its resistance to high pressure processing was observed, based on PFGE analysis. Spores of proteolytic type B strains of C. botulinum were less resistant to combined high pressure and heat (700 MPa and 105°C) treatment when compared with spores of type A strains.

Effect of packaging systems and pressure fluids on inactivation of Clostridium botulinum spores by combined high pressure and thermal processing.

Several studies have been published on the inactivation of bacterial spores by using high pressure processing in combination with heat. None of the studies investigated the effect of the packaging system or the pressurizing fluid on spore inactivation. The objective of this study was to select and validate an appropriate packaging system and pressure transfer fluid for inactivation of Clostridium botulinum spores by using high pressure processing in combination with thermal processing. Inactivation of spores packaged in three packaging systems (plastic pouches, cryovials, and transfer pipettes) was measured in two pressure test systems (laboratory-scale and pilot-scale) at 700 MPa and >105°C. Total destruction (>6.6-log reduction) of the spores packaged in the graduated tube part of transfer pipettes was obtained after processing for up to 10 min at 118°C and 700 MPa in both pressure test systems, compared with the spores packaged either in plastic pouches or cryovials. Reduction of spores packaged in plastic pouches was lowest (<4.8 log) for both pressure test systems when processed at the same conditions (i.e., 700 MPa and 118°C). Within the pilot-scale pressure system, increasing the process temperature from 118 to 121°C at 700 MPa for 10 min resulted in only a small increase in spore reduction (<5.1 log) for spores packaged in plastic pouches, whereas there were no recoverable spores for either of the other two packaging systems. Use of plastic pouches for packaging spores in inactivation kinetic studies could lead to erroneous conclusions about the effect of high pressure in combination with heat. BioGlycol is the pressure-heat transfer fluid of choice, as compared with Duratherm oil, to maximize the temperature response rate during pressurization within the laboratory-scale pressure test system.