The unusual γ-ray burst GRB 101225A from a helium star/neutron star merger at redshift 0.33.

Long γ-ray bursts (GRBs) are the most dramatic examples of massive stellar deaths, often associated with supernovae. They release ultra-relativistic jets, which produce non-thermal emission through synchrotron radiation as they interact with the surrounding medium. Here we report observations of the unusual GRB 101225A. Its γ-ray emission was exceptionally long-lived and was followed by a bright X-ray transient with a hot thermal component and an unusual optical counterpart. During the first 10 days, the optical emission evolved as an expanding, cooling black body, after which an additional component, consistent with a faint supernova, emerged. We estimate its redshift to be z = 0.33 by fitting the spectral-energy distribution and light curve of the optical emission with a GRB-supernova template. Deep optical observations may have revealed a faint, unresolved host galaxy. Our proposed progenitor is a merger of a helium star with a neutron star that underwent a common envelope phase, expelling its hydrogen envelope. The resulting explosion created a GRB-like jet which became thermalized by interacting with the dense, previously ejected material, thus creating the observed black body, until finally the emission from the supernova dominated. An alternative explanation is a minor body falling onto a neutron star in the Galaxy.

[Background gamma activity in the rabbit electroencephalogram as an index of the level of sustained (tonic) attention in the active oddball paradigm in rabbits].

Tonic brain activity substantially affects the character of subjects' responsiveness to sensory stimuli. The dynamics of background gamma-band activity in rabbit electroencephalogram was investigated in the active oddball paradigm modified for animal studies. It was shown that increase in the power and coherence of gamma activity reflects the target stimulus expectancy. Correct responses to stimuli occur at a particular level of background gamma activity, which is likely to correspond to the optimal level of sustained (tonic) attention. Decrease in the level of background gamma activity leads to omissions of responses to target stimuli, while it's excessive level results in erroneous responses to nontarget stimuli (false alarms). The observed dynamics of tonic gamma activity can be interpreted as the result of variations in the level of tonic cholinergic activation of the brain cortex.

A gamma-ray burst at a redshift of z approximately 8.2.

Long-duration gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are thought to result from the explosions of certain massive stars, and some are bright enough that they should be observable out to redshifts of z > 20 using current technology. Hitherto, the highest redshift measured for any object was z = 6.96, for a Lyman-alpha emitting galaxy. Here we report that GRB 090423 lies at a redshift of z approximately 8.2, implying that massive stars were being produced and dying as GRBs approximately 630 Myr after the Big Bang. The burst also pinpoints the location of its host galaxy.

Effects of protein synthesis inhibitors on the sensitization of a defensive response in common snails and potentiation of the cholinosensitivity of command neurons.

The effects of protein synthesis inhibitors on short-term sensitization of a defensive reaction in common snails and the potentiation of the cholinosensitivity of command neurons were studied. The protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin did not prevent behavioral sensitization. Anisomycin and the irreversible protein synthesis inhibitor saporin changed the dynamics of potentiation of command neuron cholinosensitivity. We suggest that the sensitization of the defensive response of the common snail studied here does not require the synthesis of new proteins.

[Effect of protein synthesis inhibitors on sensitization of defence reaction and on cholinosensitivity of command neurons in Helix lucorum].

We studied influence of protein synthesis inhibitors on short-term sensitization of Helix escape reaction and potentiation cholinosensitivity in command neurons. Inhibitor of protein synthesis anisomycin does not prevent behavioral sensitization. Anisomycin and irreversible inhibitor of protein synthesis saporin change the dynamics of cholinosensitivity potentiation in command neurons. The results Suggest that investigated sensitization of Helix escape reaction does not require synthesis of new proteins.

Methiothepin-sensitive serotonin receptors are involved in the postsynaptic mechanism of sensitization of the defensive response in the common snail.

Rhythmic electrical stimulation of the snail foot leads to sensitization of the defensive reflex. This sensitization has dynamics similar to those of posttetanic potentiation of the amplitude of the acetylcholine-evoked influx current of defensive behavior command neurons in the common snail. It is likely that an increase in the cholinosensitivity of the somatic membrane of defensive behavior command neurons in the common snail may be involved in the mechanism of sensitization of the animal's defensive response. Methiothepin, an antagonist of serotonin receptors, prevented the posttetanic potentiation of the acetylcholine-evoked influx current as well as behavioral sensitization. Serotonin, like methiothepin, also impaired posttetanic potentiation of the acetylcholine-evoked influx current. It is suggested that methiothepin-sensitive serotonin receptors are involved in the postsynaptic mechanism of behavioral sensitization.

[Methiothepin-sensitive serotonin receptors are involved in postsynaptic mechanism of sensitization of Helix lucorum escape reaction].

Tetanic electric stimulation of Helix foot evokes sensitization of escape reaction. This behavioral sensitization and posttetanic potentiation (PTP) of acetylcholine-induced inward current (ACh-current) in command Helix neurons of escape behavior were similar. Antagonist of serotonin receptors methiothepin prevents the PTP of the ACh-current and behavioral sensitization. Serotonin disrupts the PTP of the ACh-current. It is suggested that the increase in cholinosensitivity of the command neurons with the involvement of methiothepin-sensitive serotonin receptors may be the cellular postsynaptic mechanism of behavioral sensitization of Helix escape reaction.

An apparatus for recording defensive responses to tactile stimulation in the ground snail.

We describe here an original working experimental apparatus for non-invasive objective recording of the magnitudes of defensive responses to tactile stimulation in the ground snail. The apparatus includes a tracking device that ensures that the snail's position relative to a light and photodiode remains constant as it ascends a cylinder rotating about a horizontal axis. The device providing tactile stimulation is based on a loudspeaker circuit and provides blows of dosed energy. The snail responds to the tactile stimulation by retracting the antennae, head, and foot, which decreases the area of its shadow; this is recorded by a photodiode.

[An experimental unit for the recording of the escape reaction of a ground snail to tactile stimulation]. / Ustanovka dlia registratsii oboronitel'noi reaktsii nazemnoi ulitki na taktil'nuiu stimuliatsiiu.

An original working experimental unit for noninvasive objective recording of the magnitude of escape reaction of a ground snail evoked by tactile stimulation is described. A. snail creeps upwards over the cylinder rotating around its horizontal axis. A watching device ensures a constant snail position relative to a light source and a photoelement. A device for tactile stimulation which provides graduated energy of an impact is constructed on the basis of the magnetic circuit of a loudspeaker. In response to a tactile stimulus a snail pulls in its feelers, head, and foot, and the area of snail's shadow decreases. These changes are indicated by the photoelement.

Generalized post-tetanic changes in excitatory postsynaptic and acetylcholine-evoked currents in neurons in the common snail.

Changes in excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSC) and influx currents induced by local iontophoretic application of acetylcholine (ACh currents) to the surfaces of the bodies of identified neurons LPa3 and RPa3 in the common snail after heteroreceptor tetanic stimulation were studied. The effects of rhythmic application of acetylcholine (0.5-1.0 times per sec for 10-40 sec) on the magnitude of EPSC were analyzed, along with the effects of tetanic stimulation of the nerves (n. intestinalis, n. pallialis dexter, n. pallialis sinister; 1-5 Hz for 1-2 min) on the amplitudes of the ACh current and the magnitudes of EPSC evoked by stimulation of another nerve. The following changes in conditioning responses were found over 1-1.5 h after tetanization: rhythmic application of ACh to the dorsal surface of the cell body resulted in potentiation of EPSC, and tetanic orthodromic stimulation potentiated the ACh current and induced heterosynaptic depression of EPSC. These post-tetanic changes were not local--they developed in those chemoreceptor zones of the membrane which were not activated by the preceding conditioning rhythmic stimulation. It is concluded that generalized post-tetanic changes in neuron responses are induced by activation of its subsynaptic and extrasynaptic mediator chemoreceptors.

Long-term potentiation of the late NMDA-dependent components of neuron responses in the cat motor cortex to stimulation of the direct cortical input from field 5 of the parietal cortex.

Bicuculline-filled microelectrodes were used to record responses to weak stimulation of the parietal cortex in field 5 of the motor cortex of anesthetized cats, and revealed late excitatory responses of neurons similar to those seen in the motor cortex of conscious cats in response to conditioned stimulation of the parietal cortex triggering a conditioned reflex consisting of placing the paw on a support. Tetanic stimulation of the parietal cortex (10-20 sec, 100 Hz) in the same conditions evoked long-term potentiation of late responses, resulting in the formation and enhancement of responses, along with decreases in the latent period of responses.

The facilitatory and depressive effects of iontophoretically applied acetylcholine on different components of neuron responses in the motor cortex of the cat during performance of a conditioned paw positioning reflex.

Iontophoretic application of acetylcholine to neurons in the motor cortex of cats during performance of a conditioned reflex consisting of placing the paw on a support increased neuron excitability and facilitated "extrinsic" connections, resulting in increases in primary responses to electrical stimulation of the parietal region of the cortex, and which was independent of the first effect of suppression, which was seen only in relation to the long-latency components of the response. The functional significance of the differently directed effects of acetylcholine application is indicated by the statistically significant changes in motor reaction times seen in some experiments, which were in the same direction as changes in neuronal responses in the same experiments.

[The long-term potentiation of the late NMDA-dependent components of the responses of the cat motor cortex neurons to stimulation of the direct cortical input of area 5 in the parietal cortex]. / Dlitel'naia potentsiatsiia pozdnikh NMDA-zavisimykh komponentov otvetov neironov motornoi kory koshki na stimuliatsiiu priamogo korkovogo vkhoda iz polia 5 temennoi kory.

Activity of neurons in the motor cortex was recorded in anesthetized cats with glass micropipettes filled with bicuculline solution (bicuculline methiodide, 10 mM in 1 M NaCl). Under these conditions, the minimal (near-threshold) electrical stimulation of the area 5 of the parietal cortex evoked the late neuronal discharges (in 30-200-ms poststimulus interval) in the motor cortex. Such discharges resembled the late NMDA-dependent discharges recorded in the motor cortex of awake cats in response to stimulation of the parietal cortex, which produced the preliminary elaborated conditioned forepaw placing. Under the same conditions, tetanic stimulation of the parietal cortex (100 Hz, 10-20s) led to the long-term potentiation of the late response, which manifested itself as response amplitude augmentation and latency shortening.

[Generalized posttetanic changes in the excitatory postsynaptic and acetylcholine-evoked currents in snail neurons]. / Generalizovannye posttetanicheskie izmeneniia vozbuzhdaiushchikh postsinapticheskikh i vyzvannykh atsetilkholinom tokov v neironakh vinogradnoi ulitki.

Heteroreceptor posttetanic changes in excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSC) and inward currents evoked by the local iontophoretic application of acetylcholine (ACh) on the dorsal surface of PLa3 and PRa3 Helix lucorum neurons were studied. The following changes in the currents were revealed over the course of 1-1.5 h after tetanization. The rhythmical ACh application (0.5-1.0 cps, 10-40 s) evokes potentiation of the orthodromic EPSC. The tetanic orthodromic stimulation of one of the nerves (n. intestinalis, n. pallialis dexter, or n. pallialis sinister; 1-5 cps, 1-2 min) causes the potentiation of the ACh current and also heterosynaptic depression of the EPSC. It is concluded that activation of subsynaptic and nonsynaptic neurotransmitter chemoreceptors evokes the development of generalized posttetanic changes in neuronal responses.

Effect of 2-amino-5-phosphopentanoic acid (AP5), a glutamate NMDA receptor blocker, on neuron activity in the cat motor cortex during performance of a paw placement conditioned reflex.

Two types of stimulus-associated response were recorded in the contralateral motor cortex during performance of a condition reflex consisting of placing the forepaw on a support in response to a short electrical stimulus (4 msec, 500 Hz) applied to the contralateral parietal cortex (field 5). Primary short-latency responses (peak latent period about 10 msec, duration 30-50 msec) showed little sensitivity to the application of AP5, a blocker of glutamate NMDA receptors; secondary long-latency responses (peak latent period 65 msec, duration 150-200 msec) were inhibited in 44% of cases. Excitatory neuron responses associated with movement were inhibited by AP5 in 18% of cases. Increases in the latent period of the movement itself were seen in 19% of cases. AP5 decreased background activity in 46% of background-active neurons. The number of cases in which individual components of the response and neuron background activity were increased and latent periods of movement were decreased after application of AP5 was no more than expected from a random spread of data.

[Facilitation and depression, under the influence of the iontophoretic application of acetylcholine, of the different components of the neuronal reactions in the cat motor cortex during the performance of a conditioned reflex of placing the paw on a lever]. / Oblegchenie i ugnetenie pod vliianiem ionoforeticheskoi applikatsii atsetilkholina raznykh komponentov reaktsii neironov dvigatel'noi kory koshki pri vypolnenii uslovnogo refleksa postanovki lapy na oporu.

The iontophoretic application of acetylcholine onto the motor cortex of cats during the execution of conditioned placing reaction caused an increase in neuronal excitability and facilitation of "extrinsic" connections (manifested as an enhancement of primary responses to electrical stimulation of the parietal cortex) and independent effect of suppression, which could be seen only in the response components with longer latency. The functional significance of these oppositely directed effects of acetylcholine application is corroborated by statistically significant changes in the motor response latency of the same directions as the changes in neuronal responses. Such a correlation was observed in a number of experiments.

[The effect of 2-amino-5-phosphopentanoic acid (AP5)--a NMDA glutamate receptor blocker--on the neuronal activity of the motor cortex in a cat performing the conditioned reflex of placing its paw on a lever]. / Vliianie 2-amino-5-fosfopentanovoi kisloty (AP5)--blokatora NMDA-retseptorov gliutamata--na aktivnost' neironov dvigatel'noi kory koshki pri vypolnenii uslovnogo refleksa postanovki lapy na oporu.

During cats' performance of the forepaw placing reaction, which was conditioned by a short electrical stimulation (4 msec, 500 Hz) of the contralateral parietal cortex (area 5), two types of stimulus-related responses could be recorded in the contralateral motor cortex. The primary short-latency responses (peak latency about 10 msec, duration up to 30-50 msec) were little sensitive to the application of AP5, a glutamate-NMDA-receptor blocker. The secondary long-latency responses (peak latency 65 msec, duration up to 150-200 msec) were suppressed in 44% of cases of AP5 application. The excitatory movement-related responses were suppressed by AP5 in 18% of cases. An increase in the latency of the conditioned movement itself was observed in 19% of cases. AP5 caused a decrease in the background firing in 46% of spontaneously active neurons. The number of cases of enhancement of separate response components and background neuronal activity and the number of cases of a decrease in the movement latency under the action of AP5 did not exceed those expected at random data distribution.

[THe characteristics of the autonomic reactions of healthy adolescents and of those with lowered intellectual productivity]. / Osobennosti vegetativnogo reagirovaniia podrostkov--zdorovykh i so snizhennoi intellektual'noi produktivnost'iu.

Present research is devoted to psychophysiological study of the mechanisms of functional state control in normal and educationally disabled children using EEG, neuropsychological, and heart rate data obtained during different types of mental activity, including performance of arithmetic, verbal, spatial, and time-perception tests. Attention index and one-minute time interval production in the group of educationally disabled patients were found to be statistically lower than in the normal children. Heart rate level in this group was also lower than in the normal children of the same age. Increase of heart rate indices during perception of instruction and transition to its realization was statistically higher in the group of normal children. The differences between the groups can be explained by disfunction of the functional state regulation mechanisms, deficit of sympathetic influence and prevalence of parasympathetic ones, as well as by the weakness of the functions of the nervous system which causes disadaptation in educationally disabled children.

[The hypothesis of the "efferent copy" in saccade programming in cats]. / Gipoteza "éfferentnoi kopii" v programmirovanii sakkad u koshek.

Horizontal eye movements in cats were recorded using the magnetic search coil method. Saccadic eye movements were linearly approximated. For combined eye and head movements the slope of lines was independent of maximal head velocity within the studied range (up to 250 degree/s). Saccades slowed down with a restrained head. The duration of the gaze shift grew with an increase of its amplitude. The amplitude of gaze was found to depend on the head velocity. Experimental data on the interaction of eye and head movements during the coordinated goal displacements are interpreted from standpoint of the saccadic signal suppression by the "efferent copy" signal for head movements.

[Coordination of eye and head movements in cats]. / Koordinatsiia dvizhenii glaz i golovy u koshek.

Horizontal displacements of gaze in cats with unrestrained head were studied using the magnetic search coil method. Three types of eye-head coordination were found when cats oriented gaze towards visual targets. Maximal velocities of gaze, head and eye movements in orbits depend linearily on amplitudes of their displacements in the range of up to 20 degrees. Gaze velocity reached its top level in about 0.3 of complete time of movement execution. Data support the idea of saccadic-vestibular summation during coordinated eye-head movements in cats.