The effect of the level of data presentation on visual analysts' decisions.

Single-case design (SCD) is frequently utilized in research and applied settings to evaluate the effect of an intervention over time. Once collected, single-case data are typically graphed and analyzed visually in both research and practice contexts. Despite the ubiquity of visual analysis in SCD, this analytic framework has often been critiqued due to findings of limited reliability across visual analysts. Recent research has identified that the way a graph is constructed may contribute to the limitations of visual analysis. The present study sought to evaluate the effect of visually representing multiple measurement occasions as a single data point (e.g., combining measurements taken daily into a weekly composite data point) on visual analysts' decisions regarding the magnitude of an intervention effect. Eleven participants viewed identical data sets, plotted to show different numbers of measurement occasions combined as a single data point, and provided ratings regarding the magnitude of intervention effect depicted within the graph. Results indicated a significant main effect, with data sets with higher levels of data combination being rated as demonstrating significantly larger intervention effects. The results of the study provide additional support for standardization of data presentation and graph construction within SCD in both research and practice contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Effect of the Fidget Cube on Classroom Behavior among Students with Perceived Attention Difficulties.

Fidget toys, one class of sensory-based interventions, enjoy favorable coverage in popular media outlets supporting their impact on attention, memory, and stress. However, there is minimal data supporting their use in the classroom. The present study used an ABAB withdrawal design to investigate the impact of noncontingent access to a commercially available fidget toy, the Fidget Cube, on academically engaged behavior, off-task behavior, Fidget Cube engagement, math problems attempted, and math problems completed accurately during independent seatwork. Participants were three 3rd-graders referred for having attention difficulties. Results indicated that noncontingent access to the Fidget Cube during independent seatwork did not improve study outcomes. Participants engaged with the Fidget Cube less in the second intervention phase than the first. Results suggest school personnel should consider alternative strategies for students with perceived attention difficulties. Limitations of the study are discussed, along with future directions for research.

Training Soccer Skills to Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder via Peer-Mediated Behavioral Skills Training.

Peer-mediated interventions have been identified as efficient means of promoting the acquisition of skills of students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Limited research, however, has evaluated the utility of such procedures for promoting recreational skills that may allow for greater interaction with peers. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effectiveness of peer-mediated behavioral skills training on the acquisition of discrete soccer skills of 3 students with ASD. Following the implementation of the intervention, all participants demonstrated substantial improvements in the accuracy of the target soccer skills.

Effects of Daily and Reduced Frequency Implementation of the Good Behavior Game in Kindergarten Classrooms.

An effective group contingency, the Good Behavior Game (GBG), has been implemented successfully with a wide range of age groups. However, improvements in student behavior are often not observed when the GBG is abruptly terminated, and research has yet to evaluate the effects of the GBG when the frequency of implementation is reduced. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effect of the GBG, implemented daily initially then on a less frequent schedule. The study utilized a multiple baseline design across three kindergarten classrooms to evaluate the effectiveness and maintenance of the GBG at reducing classwide and target student disruptive behavior (DB) and increasing classwide and target student academic engagement. Reduced Frequency data were collected while withholding implementation of the GBG. The results indicate that the GBG was highly effective in improving classwide behavior, which was maintained throughout the final Reduced Frequency phase in which the GBG was reduced in frequency, and moderately effective in improving target student behavior during both phases.

A Comparison of Two Procedures for Assessing Preference in a Classroom Setting.

The purpose of this study was to compare a method of assessing preference within a large group format to individual preference assessments. Individual preference assessments were conducted by presenting an array of four edible stimuli to a participant and allowing the participant to select a preferred stimulus, with stimuli removed from the array based on selection criteria. Group preference assessments were conducted in a classroom of 19 students, with all students responding simultaneously to a prompt to identify a preferred stimulus using Plickers-unique Quick Response code cards that are read by an accompanying smartphone app. During the group procedure, stimuli in the array were restricted on the individual participant level. Results indicated that the group procedure was a valid and rapid method of assessing preference within a group of individuals. Although additional research is required, practitioners and researchers may consider use of Plickers as a promising means of evaluating preference within a group setting.

An evaluation of the additive effects of lag schedules of reinforcement.

Lag schedules of reinforcement represent an increasingly researched strategy for addressing restricted and repetitive social communication of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although the body of literature suggests that lag schedules of reinforcement are generally effective for this purpose, studies have varied in their utilization of verbal rules describing the contingency. Furthermore, research has yet to evaluate generalized effects of lag schedules of reinforcement to social communication with peers. This study evaluated the implementation of a social skills curriculum, modified to incorporate lag schedules of reinforcement, on novel responding of participants with ASD. Participants attended training twice per week, with probes of novel responding collected with both researchers and non-participating peers. Results indicate that social skills training that incorporated lag schedules of reinforcement generally resulted in larger increases in novel responding than social skills training alone. Furthermore, effects of training generalized to novel responding to non-participant peers.

Toward a standard assembly of linear graphs.

Single-case data are frequently used in school psychology. In research, single-case designs allow experimenters to provide rigorous demonstrations of treatment effects on a smaller scale and with more precise measurement than traditional group experimental design. In practice, single-case data are used to evaluate the effects of school-based services to make decisions at the individual level within a multitiered system of support (MTSS). School psychology and related fields (e.g., special education) have worked to increase the rigor of single-case data by developing standards for single-case experimental design and developing robust single-case effect size statistics; however, in practice, single-case data are often collected with less experimental rigor and evaluated using visual analysis of a linear graph as opposed to quantitative effect sizes. This is concerning, as an emerging body of literature suggests that simple elements of the graphical display (e.g., ordinate axis scaling, ratio of X to Y axis length) can have a profound impact on effect size judgments made by visual analysts. Currently, there are no standards guiding the construction of linear graphs used to display single-case data. The purpose of this paper is to advance the perspective that our field must develop and adopt standards of linear graph construction or risk inaccurate decisions within a MTSS framework. (PsycINFO Database Record

The effect of data points per x- to y-axis ratio on visual analysts evaluation of single-case graphs.

Research based on single-case designs (SCD) are frequently utilized in educational settings to evaluate the effect of an intervention on student behavior. Visual analysis is the primary method of evaluation of SCD, despite research noting concerns regarding reliability of the procedure. Recent research suggests that characteristics of the graphic display may contribute to poor reliability and overestimation of intervention effects. This study investigated the effect of increasing or decreasing the data points per x- to y-axis ratio (DPPXYR) on rater evaluations of functional relation and effect size in SCD data sets. Twenty-nine individuals (58.6% male) with experience in SCD were asked to evaluate 40 multiple baseline data sets. Two data sets reporting null, small, moderate, and large intervention effects (8 total) were modified by manipulating the ratio of the x- to y-axis (5 variations), resulting in 40 total graphs. Results indicate that raters scored effects as larger as the DPPXYR decreased. Additionally, a 2-way within-subjects analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a significant main effect of DPPXYR manipulation on effect size rating, F(2.11, 58.98) = 58.05, p < .001, η2 = .675, and an interaction between DPPXYR manipulation and magnitude of effect, F(6.71, 187.78) = 11.45, p < .001, η2 = .29. Overall, results of the study indicate researchers and practitioners should maintain a DPPXYR of .14 or larger in the interest of more conservative effect size judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record

Erratum to: The Impact of Stimulus Presentation and Size on Preference.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1007/s40617-016-0148-6.].

The Impact of Stimulus Presentation and Size on Preference.

The impact of stimulus size and presentation on choice during a preference assessment was investigated using a modified multiple-stimulus without replacement (MSWO) technique. Stimuli were either presented with a uniform magnitude, as determined by mass, or in a manner consistent with caregiver report of reinforcer consumption. While both assessment procedures identified the same top three preferred items in three out of five cases, greater variability in the preference rank of less preferred items was observed between assessments.

The impact of ordinate scaling on the visual analysis of single-case data.

Visual analysis is the primary method for detecting the presence of treatment effects in graphically displayed single-case data and it is often referred to as the "gold standard." Although researchers have developed standards for the application of visual analysis (e.g., Horner et al., 2005), over- and underestimation of effect size magnitude is not uncommon among analysts. Several characteristics have been identified as potential contributors to these errors; however, researchers have largely focused on characteristics of the data itself (e.g., autocorrelation), paying less attention to characteristics of the graphic display which are largely in control of the analyst (e.g., ordinate scaling). The current study investigated the impact that differences in ordinate scaling, a graphic display characteristic, had on experts' accuracy in judgments regarding the magnitude of effect present in single-case percentage data. 32 participants were asked to evaluate eight ABAB data sets (2 each presenting null, small, moderate, and large effects) along with three iterations of each (32 graphs in total) in which only the ordinate scale was manipulated. Results suggest that raters are less accurate in their detection of treatment effects as the ordinate scale is constricted. Additionally, raters were more likely to overestimate the size of a treatment effect when the ordinate scale was constricted.

Enhancing appropriate and variable responding in young children with autism spectrum disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The present study utilized lag schedules of reinforcement, in conjunction with training multiple exemplars and provision of prompts, to promote appropriate variability of social skills. METHODS: Participants included in three children between the ages of 5 and 7 with ASD. Participants attended a social skills training program twice per week for eight weeks. A multiple probe design across target social skills was used to assess the effects of intervention. RESULTS: Findings indicate that training multiple exemplars alone did not appreciably increase appropriate and variable responding, whereas the addition of lag schedules of reinforcement and prompting to training multiple exemplars resulted in appropriate and variable responding that exceeded baseline levels. CONCLUSION: Use of lag schedule of reinforcement in conjunction with prompts was more effective than multiple exemplar training in isolation for increasing appropriate variability of social skills.

On-Task in a Box: An evaluation of a package-ready intervention for increasing levels of on-task behavior and academic performance.

The present study tested the efficacy of the On-Task in a Box program for increasing on-task behavior and academic accuracy of highly off-task students. Six students in 2nd and 3rd grades were identified by their classroom teacher as highly off-task. Following identification, the students participated in the On-Task in a Box intervention. Results of the study found immediate and large effects, which were maintained following discontinuation of the intervention. Collateral improvements in accuracy on math probes completed during independent seatwork were also observed. Teacher and participant responses to intervention acceptability questionnaires indicate the program was viewed positively. Implications for school-based adoption of the program are presented, and limitations and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Promoting Accurate Variability of Social Skills in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Restricted and repetitive behavior is a central feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), with such behaviors often resulting in lack of reinforcement in social contexts. The present study investigated training multiple exemplars of target behaviors and the utilization of lag schedules of reinforcement in the context of social skills training to promote appropriate and varied social behavior in children with ASD. Five participants with ASD between the ages of 7 and 9 attended a twice-weekly social skills group for 8 weeks. A multiple probe design across skills was utilized to assess intervention effects. During baseline, participants demonstrated low levels of skill accuracy and low appropriate variability in responding. During continuous reinforcement with one trained exemplar, skill accuracy increased while appropriate variability remained low. Training of three exemplars of target skills resulted in minimal improvements in appropriate variability. Introduction of a Lag 2 schedule with three trained exemplars was generally associated with increased appropriate variability. Further appropriate variability was observed during Lag 4 with three trained exemplars. Limitations and implications are discussed.

Peer-facilitated discrete trial training for children with autism spectrum disorder.

In 2 studies, we evaluated the feasibility and efficacy of peer-mediated, school-based discrete trial training (DTT) for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In the first, 6 typically developing elementary-age students were trained to use DTT procedures to teach target academic skills to 3 students with ASD who had been educated in a self-contained setting. A multiple probe-across-tutors design was applied to evaluate the accuracy with which the tutors implemented the DTT protocol. Results of the study indicated that training was effective in increasing the integrity of implementation of the DTT protocol. In addition, improvements in integrity were maintained following termination of training. To assess the effectiveness of the ability of previously untrained tutors to teach new, target behaviors to different children with ASD, a second study was conducted. Five of the 6 tutors taught 2 or 3 skills in a multiple probe fashion to children with ASD whom they had not previously tutored. Results suggest that peer tutors effectively generalized skills, as shown by participants with ASD who demonstrated rapid improvements in level and trend of target behaviors. Observations of social engagement during unstructured periods were conducted prior to and following intervention as a measure of social validity. Substantial increases in duration of engagement were noted, suggesting that peer-mediated DTT may result in meaningful improvements in both academic skills and inclusion with peers. (PsycINFO Database Record

Promoting independent ambulation: A case study of an elementary school student with developmental disabilities.

The limited independent ambulation of individuals with developmental disabilities may be improved with the utilization of support walker devices. In the present study, a forward chaining procedure with an embedded changing criterion component was used to teach an elementary school student with multiple disabilities to acquire and maintain the skills needed to use his walker device successfully, and to increase his total distance walked while using his walker device. Results indicated that the student quickly acquired three of the four requisite steps necessary to use the walker device, but eventually acquired all four steps after procedural modifications. After mastering the four steps, the student gradually increased his total distance walked. Results were maintained when assessed two months post-intervention. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

School-based social skills training for preschool-age children with autism spectrum disorder.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder display impairments in social interactions and communication that appear at early ages and result in short- and long-term negative outcomes. As such, there is a need for effective social skills training programs for young children with autism spectrum disorder-particularly interventions capable of being delivered in educational settings. The study evaluated the effects of the Superheroes Social Skills program on accurate demonstration of social skills in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Two preschool-age children with autism spectrum disorder participated in a weekly social skills intervention. A multiple probe design across skills was used to determine the effects of the intervention. Both participants demonstrated substantial improvements in skill accuracy. Social skills checklists also indicated improvements in social functioning over baseline levels.

Social Skills Training for Adolescents With Intellectual Disabilities: A School-Based Evaluation.

Individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) often demonstrate impairments in social functioning, with deficits becoming more apparent during adolescence. This study evaluated the effects of the Superheroes Social Skills program, a program that combines behavioral skills training and video modeling to teach target social skills, on accurate demonstration of three target social skills in adolescents with ID. Skills taught in the present study include Expressing Wants and Needs, Conversation, and Turn Taking. Four adolescents with ID participated in a 3-week social skills intervention, with the intervention occurring twice per week. A multiple baseline across skills design was used to determine the effect of the intervention on social skill accuracy in both a training and generalization setting. All participants demonstrated substantial improvements in skill accuracy in both settings, with teacher ratings of social functioning further suggesting generalization of social skills to nontraining settings.

Antecedent Strategies to Promote Children's and Adolescents' Compliance with Adult Requests: A Review of the Literature.

Compliance with adult requests and directives has often been described as a keystone behavior in children, meaning it is associated with engagement in other desirable and socially appropriate behaviors. As such, a great deal of research has been directed toward identifying strategies that increase compliance in children. Antecedent strategies, which focus on increasing the probability of compliance prior to or during the delivery of the directive or request, are popular because they have the potential to prevent noncompliance; however, it is not clear which of the numerous antecedent strategies are effective or for whom. Therefore, a systematic review of the antecedent strategies for compliance was completed. Forty-two studies were identified evaluating eight different antecedent strategies for children aged 1-19. It was determined that high-probability command sequences, effective instruction delivery, and errorless compliance training may all be considered evidence-based antecedent strategies to increase children's compliance with adult requests.

Brief Report: Use of Superheroes Social Skills to Promote Accurate Social Skill Use in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

The current study evaluated the use of Superheroes Social Skills to promote accurate use of discrete social skills in training and generalization conditions in two children with autism spectrum disorder. Participants attended a twice weekly social skills training group over 5 weeks, with lessons targeting nonverbal, requesting, responding, and conversation skills. A multiple probe across social skills design, replicated across participants, was utilized to assess the effects of participation of the intervention on skill accuracy. Following introduction of the intervention, participants demonstrated abrupt improvements in skill accuracy in both training and generalization conditions. Additionally, parental reports of participant social functioning indicated improvements following participation in the intervention. Limitations and future directions are discussed.