Pediatric allergies in Japan: Coronavirus disease pandemic-related risk factors.

Background: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic impacted various parts of society, including Japanese children with allergies. Objective: This study investigated risk factors for pediatric allergic diseases associated with the state of emergency owing to the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan, including during school closures. Methods: Parents of pediatric patients (0-15 years) with allergies were enrolled and queried regarding the impact of school closure on pediatric allergies compared to that before the COVID-19 pandemic. Results: A valid response was obtained from 2302 parents; 1740 of them had children with food allergies. Approximately 4% (62/1740) of the parents reported accidental food allergen ingestion was increased compared to that before the COVID-19 pandemic. Accidental ingestion during school closures was associated with increased contact with meals containing allergens meant for siblings or other members of the family at home. The exacerbation rate during the pandemic was highest for atopic dermatitis at 13% (127/976), followed by allergic rhinitis at 8% (58/697), and bronchial asthma at 4% (27/757). The main risk factors for worsening atopic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis, and bronchial asthma were contact dermatitis of the mask area (34/120 total comments); home allergens, such as mites, dogs, and cats (15/51 total comments); and seasonal changes (6/25 total comments), respectively. Conclusion: The main factors affecting allergic diseases were likely related to increased time at home, preventive measures against COVID-19, and refraining from doctor visits. Children with allergies were affected by changes in social conditions; however, some factors, such as preventing accidental ingestion and the management of allergens at home, were similar to those before the COVID-19 pandemic. Patients who had received instructions on allergen avoidance at home before the pandemic were able to manage their disease better even when their social conditions changed.

Rational design of alcoholic fermentation targeting extracellular carbon.

Breeding yeast strains for industrial alcoholic fermentation requires laborious screening due to the lack of in vivo modification strategies. Here we show that quiescence-specific cell wall thickening via synthesis of a major component, 1,3-ß-glucan, critically antagonizes cellular fermentation ability by sequestering the available cytoplasmic carbon sources. This study provides insights into glycolytic control and reports an effective and reliable rational fermentation design.

Spontaneous Attenuation of Alcoholic Fermentation via the Dysfunction of Cyc8p in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

A cell population characterized by the release of glucose repression and known as [GAR+] emerges spontaneously in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This study revealed that the [GAR+] variants exhibit retarded alcoholic fermentation when glucose is the sole carbon source. To identify the key to the altered glucose response, the gene expression profile of [GAR+] cells was examined. Based on RNA-seq data, the [GAR+] status was linked to impaired function of the Cyc8p-Tup1p complex. Loss of Cyc8p led to a decrease in the initial rate of alcoholic fermentation under glucose-rich conditions via the inactivation of pyruvate decarboxylase, an enzyme unique to alcoholic fermentation. These results suggest that Cyc8p can become inactive to attenuate alcoholic fermentation. These findings may contribute to the elucidation of the mechanism of non-genetic heterogeneity in yeast alcoholic fermentation.

Effect of the deubiquitination enzyme gene UBP6 on the stress-responsive transcription factor Msn2-mediated control of the amino acid permease Gnp1 in yeast.

In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the transcriptional factor Msn2 plays an essential role in response to a variety of environmental stresses by activating the transcription of many genes that contain the stress-responsive elements in the promoters. We previously reported that overexpression of the MSN2 gene confers tolerance to various stresses in industrial yeast strains. Recently, the overexpression of MSN2 was shown to increase the amount of the amino acid permease Gnp1 on the plasma membrane, leading to the increased uptake of proline into the cell, suggesting a novel link between the Msn2-mediated stress response and amino acid homeostasis in yeast. Here, we found that overexpression of MSN2 increased ubiquitinated protein levels with reduced free ubiquitin. Among deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), it was revealed that the loss of Ubp6 depleted the free ubiquitin level and decreased tolerance to the toxic amino acid analogues. The overexpression of UBP6 in MSN2-overexpressing cells clearly complemented the impaired tolerance towards the toxic amino acid analogues. Both the protein level and the plasma-membrane localization of Gnp1 were increased in ubp6-deleted cells, as shown in MSN2-overexpressing cells. These results suggest that an excess level of Msn2 impairs endocytic degradation of Gnp1 through dysfunction of Ubp6 and other DUBs.

Proline metabolism regulates replicative lifespan in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

In many plants and microorganisms, intracellular proline has a protective role against various stresses, including heat-shock, oxidation and osmolarity. Environmental stresses induce cellular senescence in a variety of eukaryotes. Here we showed that intracellular proline regulates the replicative lifespan in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Deletion of the proline oxidase gene PUT1 and expression of the γ-glutamate kinase mutant gene PRO1-I150T that is less sensitive to feedback inhibition accumulated proline and extended the replicative lifespan of yeast cells. Inversely, disruption of the proline biosynthetic genes PRO1, PRO2, and CAR2 decreased stationary proline level and shortened the lifespan of yeast cells. Quadruple disruption of the proline transporter genes unexpectedly did not change intracellular proline levels and replicative lifespan. Overexpression of the stress-responsive transcription activator gene MSN2 reduced intracellular proline levels by inducing the expression of PUT1, resulting in a short lifespan. Thus, the intracellular proline levels at stationary phase was positively correlated with the replicative lifespan. Furthermore, multivariate analysis of amino acids in yeast mutants deficient in proline metabolism showed characteristic metabolic profiles coincident with longevity: acidic and basic amino acids and branched-chain amino acids positively contributed to the replicative lifespan. These results allude to proline metabolism having a physiological role in maintaining the lifespan of yeast cells.

Involvement of the stress-responsive transcription factor gene MSN2 in the control of amino acid uptake in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The transcriptional factor Msn2 plays a pivotal role in response to environmental stresses by activating the transcription of stress-responsive genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Our previous studies demonstrate that intracellular proline acts as a key protectant against various stresses. It is unknown, however, whether Msn2 is involved in proline homeostasis in S. cerevisiae cells. We here found that MSN2-overexpressing (MSN2-OE) cells showed higher sensitivity to a toxic analogue of proline, l-azetidine-2-carboxylic acid (AZC), as well as to the other amino acid toxic analogues, than wild-type cells. Overexpression of MSN2 increased the intracellular content of AZC, suggesting that Msn2 positively regulates the uptake of proline. Among the known proline permease genes, GNP1 was shown to play a predominant role in the AZC toxicity. Based on quantitative real-time PCR and western blot analyses, the overexpression of MSN2 did not induce any increases in the transcript levels of GNP1 or the other proline permease genes, while the amount of the Gnp1 protein was markedly increased in MSN2-OE cells. Microscopic observation suggested that the endocytic degradation of Gnp1 was impaired in MSN2-OE cells. Thus, this study sheds light on a novel link between the Msn2-mediated global stress response and the amino acid homeostasis in S. cerevisiae.

Characterization of a New Saccharomyces cerevisiae Isolated From Hibiscus Flower and Its Mutant With L-Leucine Accumulation for Awamori Brewing.

Since flavors of alcoholic beverages produced in fermentation process are affected mainly by yeast metabolism, the isolation and breeding of yeasts have contributed to the alcoholic beverage industry. To produce awamori, a traditional spirit (distilled alcoholic beverage) with unique flavors made from steamed rice in Okinawa, Japan, it is necessary to optimize yeast strains for a diversity of tastes and flavors with established qualities. Two categories of flavors are characteristic of awamori; initial scented fruity flavors and sweet flavors that arise with aging. Here we isolated a novel strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae from hibiscus flowers in Okinawa, HC02-5-2, that produces high levels of alcohol. The whole-genome information revealed that strain HC02-5-2 is contiguous to wine yeast strains in a phylogenic tree. This strain also exhibited a high productivity of 4-vinyl guaiacol (4-VG), which is a precursor of vanillin known as a key flavor of aged awamori. Although conventional awamori yeast strain 101-18, which possesses the FDC1 pseudogene does not produce 4-VG, strain HC02-5-2, which has the intact PAD1 and FDC1 genes, has an advantage for use in a novel kind of awamori. To increase the contents of initial scented fruity flavors, such as isoamyl alcohol and isoamyl acetate, we attempted to breed strain HC02-5-2 targeting the L-leucine synthetic pathway by conventional mutagenesis. In mutant strain T25 with L-leucine accumulation, we found a hetero allelic mutation in the LEU4 gene encoding the Gly516Ser variant α-isopropylmalate synthase (IPMS). IPMS activity of the Gly516Ser variant was less sensitive to feedback inhibition by L-leucine, leading to intracellular L-leucine accumulation. In a laboratory-scale test, awamori brewed with strain T25 showed higher concentrations of isoamyl alcohol and isoamyl acetate than that brewed with strain HC02-5-2. Such a combinatorial approach to yeast isolation, with whole-genome analysis and metabolism-focused breeding, has the potentials to vary the quality of alcoholic beverages.

Loss of Rim15p in shochu yeast alters carbon utilization during barley shochu fermentation.

Rim15p of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a Greatwall-family protein kinase that inhibits alcoholic fermentation during sake brewing. To elucidate the roles of Rim15p in barley shochu fermentation, RIM15 was deleted in shochu yeast. The disruptant did not improve ethanol yield, but altered sugar and glycerol contents in the mash, suggesting that Rim15p has a novel function in carbon utilization.

Nutrient Signaling via the TORC1-Greatwall-PP2AB55δ Pathway Is Responsible for the High Initial Rates of Alcoholic Fermentation in Sake Yeast Strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae sake yeast strain Kyokai no. 7 (K7) and its relatives carry a homozygous loss-of-function mutation in the RIM15 gene, which encodes a Greatwall family protein kinase. Disruption of RIM15 in nonsake yeast strains leads to improved alcoholic fermentation, indicating that the defect in Rim15p is associated with the enhanced fermentation performance of sake yeast cells. In order to understand how Rim15p mediates fermentation control, we here focused on target-of-rapamycin protein kinase complex 1 (TORC1) and protein phosphatase 2A with the B55δ regulatory subunit (PP2AB55δ), complexes that are known to act upstream and downstream of Rim15p, respectively. Several lines of evidence, including our previous transcriptomic analysis data, suggested enhanced TORC1 signaling in sake yeast cells during sake fermentation. Fermentation tests of the TORC1-related mutants using a laboratory strain revealed that TORC1 signaling positively regulates the initial fermentation rate in a Rim15p-dependent manner. Deletion of the CDC55 gene, encoding B55δ, abolished the high fermentation performance of Rim15p-deficient laboratory yeast and sake yeast cells, indicating that PP2AB55δ mediates the fermentation control by TORC1 and Rim15p. The TORC1-Greatwall-PP2AB55δ pathway similarly affected the fermentation rate in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, strongly suggesting that the evolutionarily conserved pathway governs alcoholic fermentation in yeasts. It is likely that elevated PP2AB55δ activity accounts for the high fermentation performance of sake yeast cells. Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in CDC55 found in K7-related sake strains may indicate that the Rim15p-deficient phenotypes are disadvantageous to cell survival.IMPORTANCE The biochemical processes and enzymes responsible for glycolysis and alcoholic fermentation by the yeast S. cerevisiae have long been the subject of scientific research. Nevertheless, the factors determining fermentation performance in vivo are not fully understood. As a result, the industrial breeding of yeast strains has required empirical characterization of fermentation by screening numerous mutants through laborious fermentation tests. To establish a rational and efficient breeding strategy, key regulators of alcoholic fermentation need to be identified. In the present study, we focused on how sake yeast strains of S. cerevisiae have acquired high alcoholic fermentation performance. Our findings provide a rational molecular basis to design yeast strains with optimal fermentation performance for production of alcoholic beverages and bioethanol. In addition, as the evolutionarily conserved TORC1-Greatwall-PP2AB55δ pathway plays a major role in the glycolytic control, our work may contribute to research on carbohydrate metabolism in higher eukaryotes.

Accumulation of intracellular S-adenosylmethionine increases the fermentation rate of bottom-fermenting brewer's yeast during high-gravity brewing.

High-gravity brewing has been used to reduce costs and energy, as well as to produce new types of beer with high alcohol content. To identify the key metabolic pathways underlying efficient high-gravity brewing, we explored metabolites that were highly accumulated during alcoholic fermentation under high-maltose conditions using bottom-fermenting brewer's yeast, Saccharomyces pastorianus. Based on metabolomic data, we focused on S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), which may be involved in glycolysis and alcoholic fermentation in the closely related yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Exogenous SAM led to an increase in fermentation rate in both high-maltose synthetic medium and high-gravity wort. Although SAM is composed of methionine and the adenosine moiety of ATP, neither methionine nor adenosine significantly increased the fermentation rate. These results suggest that SAM is specifically associated with the fermentation rate of bottom-fermenting brewer's yeast. Deletion of the adenosine kinase gene ADO1, which leads to an accumulation of SAM in S. cerevisiae cells, elevated the fermentation rate in high-glucose synthetic medium at 15°C; however, this ado1Δ effect became less significant at higher temperatures. Similarly, a SAM-accumulating S. pastorianus mutant strain, with enhanced resistance to the adenosine analog cordycepin, exhibited a higher fermentation rate in both high-maltose synthetic medium and high-gravity wort. Taken together, our study demonstrates that SAM acts as a positive regulator in high-gravity brewing at low temperatures and that cordycepin resistance could serve as a useful indicator for breeding S. pastorianus strains with high fermentation performance.

Metabolic switching of sake yeast by kimoto lactic acid bacteria through the [GAR+] non-genetic element.

In traditional kimoto-type sake production, cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae sake yeast are grown in a starter mash generated by lactate fermentation by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Lactobacillus sakei. However, the microbial interactions between sake yeast and kimoto LAB have not been well analyzed. Since the formation of a prion-like element (designated [GAR+]) in yeast cells is promoted by bacteria, we here examined the associated phenotype (i.e., increased glucosamine resistance) in sake yeast strains K701 (a representative sake strain) and Km67 (a strain isolated from kimoto-type sake mash). Approximately 0.5% of K701 and Km67 cells, as well as 0.2% of laboratory strain X2180 cells, exhibited increased glucosamine resistance under pure culture conditions, and the frequency of this metabolic switching was further enhanced by coculture with kimoto LAB. The LAB-promoted emergence of the glucosamine-resistant cells was the most prominent in Km67, suggesting that this strain possesses an advanced mechanism for response to LAB. While the glucosamine-resistant clones of X2180 and K701 exhibited lower rates of alcoholic fermentation under high-glucose conditions than did the respective naive strains, glucosamine resistance did not severely affect alcoholic fermentation in Km67. The population of dead cells after alcoholic fermentation was decreased in the glucosamine-resistant clones of X2180, K701, and Km67. These results suggested that the formation of [GAR+] in Km67 may be beneficial in kimoto-type sake making, since [GAR+] may increase cell viability in the sake starter mash without impairing alcoholic fermentation performance.

Importance of Proteasome Gene Expression during Model Dough Fermentation after Preservation of Baker's Yeast Cells by Freezing.

Freeze-thaw stress causes various types of cellular damage, survival and/or proliferation defects, and metabolic alterations. However, the mechanisms underlying how cells cope with freeze-thaw stress are poorly understood. Here, model dough fermentations using two baker's yeast strains, 45 and YF, of Saccharomyces cerevisiae were compared after 2 weeks of cell preservation in a refrigerator or freezer. YF exhibited slow fermentation after exposure to freeze-thaw stress due to low cell viability. A DNA microarray analysis of the YF cells during fermentation revealed that the genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation were relatively strongly expressed, suggesting a decrease in the glycolytic capacity. Furthermore, we found that mRNA levels of the genes that encode the components of the proteasome complex were commonly low, and ubiquitinated proteins were accumulated by freeze-thaw stress in the YF strain. In the cells with a laboratory strain background, treatment with the proteasome inhibitor MG132 or the deletion of each transcriptional activator gene for the proteasome genes (RPN4, PDR1, or PDR3) led to marked impairment of model dough fermentation using the frozen cells. Based on these data, proteasomal degradation of freeze-thaw-damaged proteins may guarantee high cell viability and fermentation performance. We also found that the freeze-thaw stress-sensitive YF strain was heterozygous at the PDR3 locus, and one of the alleles (A148T/A229V/H336R/L541P) was shown to possess a dominant negative phenotype of slow fermentation. Removal of such responsible mutations could improve the freeze-thaw stress tolerance and the fermentation performance of baker's yeast strains, as well as other industrial S. cerevisiae strains.IMPORTANCE The development of freezing technology has enabled the long-term preservation and long-distance transport of foods and other agricultural products. Fresh yeast, however, is usually not frozen because the fermentation performance and/or the viability of individual cells is severely affected after thawing. Here, we demonstrate that proteasomal degradation of ubiquitinated proteins is an essential process in the freeze-thaw stress responses of S. cerevisiae Upstream transcriptional activator genes for the proteasome components are responsible for the fermentation performance after freezing preservation. Thus, this study provides a potential linkage between freeze-thaw stress inputs and the transcriptional regulatory network that might be functionally conserved in higher eukaryotes. Elucidation of the molecular targets of freeze-thaw stress will contribute to advances in cryobiology, such as freezing preservation of human cells, tissues, and embryos for medical purposes and breeding of industrial microorganisms and agricultural crops that adapt well to low temperatures.

Promoter engineering of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae RIM15 gene for improvement of alcoholic fermentation rates under stress conditions.

A loss-of-function mutation in the RIM15 gene, which encodes a Greatwall-like protein kinase, is one of the major causes of the high alcoholic fermentation rates in Saccharomyces cerevisiae sake strains closely related to Kyokai no. 7 (K7). However, impairment of Rim15p may not be beneficial under more severe fermentation conditions, such as in the late fermentation stage, as it negatively affects stress responses. To balance stress tolerance and fermentation performance, we inserted the promoter of a gluconeogenic gene, PCK1, into the 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) of the RIM15 gene in a laboratory strain to achieve repression of RIM15 gene expression in the glucose-rich early stage with its induction in the stressful late stage of alcoholic fermentation. The promoter-engineered strain exhibited a fermentation rate comparable to that of the RIM15-deleted strain with no decrease in cell viability. The engineered strain achieved better alcoholic fermentation performance than the RIM15-deleted strain under repetitive and high-glucose fermentation conditions. These data demonstrated the validity of promoter engineering of the RIM15 gene that governs inhibitory control of alcoholic fermentation.

Isolation of baker's yeast mutants with proline accumulation that showed enhanced tolerance to baking-associated stresses.

During bread-making processes, yeast cells are exposed to baking-associated stresses such as freeze-thaw, air-drying, and high-sucrose concentrations. Previously, we reported that self-cloning diploid baker's yeast strains that accumulate proline retained higher-level fermentation abilities in both frozen and sweet doughs than the wild-type strain. Although self-cloning yeasts do not have to be treated as genetically modified yeasts, the conventional methods for breeding baker's yeasts are more acceptable to consumers than the use of self-cloning yeasts. In this study, we isolated mutants resistant to the proline analogue azetidine-2-carboxylate (AZC) derived from diploid baker's yeast of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Some of the mutants accumulated a greater amount of intracellular proline, and among them, 5 mutants showed higher cell viability than that observed in the parent wild-type strain under freezing or high-sucrose stress conditions. Two of them carried novel mutations in the PRO1 gene encoding the Pro247Ser or Glu415Lys variant of γ-glutamyl kinase (GK), which is a key enzyme in proline biosynthesis in S. cerevisiae. Interestingly, we found that these mutations resulted in AZC resistance of yeast cells and desensitization to proline feedback inhibition of GK, leading to intracellular proline accumulation. Moreover, baker's yeast cells expressing the PRO1P247S and PRO1E415K gene were more tolerant to freezing stress than cells expressing the wild-type PRO1 gene. The approach described here could be a practical method for the breeding of proline-accumulating baker's yeasts with higher tolerance to baking-associated stresses.

Inhibitory Role of Greatwall-Like Protein Kinase Rim15p in Alcoholic Fermentation via Upregulating the UDP-Glucose Synthesis Pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The high fermentation rate of Saccharomyces cerevisiae sake yeast strains is attributable to a loss-of-function mutation in the RIM15 gene, which encodes a Greatwall-family protein kinase that is conserved among eukaryotes. In the present study, we performed intracellular metabolic profiling analysis and revealed that deletion of the RIM15 gene in a laboratory strain impaired glucose-anabolic pathways through the synthesis of UDP-glucose (UDPG). Although Rim15p is required for the synthesis of trehalose and glycogen from UDPG upon entry of cells into the quiescent state, we found that Rim15p is also essential for the accumulation of cell wall ß-glucans, which are also anabolic products of UDPG. Furthermore, the impairment of UDPG or 1,3-ß-glucan synthesis contributed to an increase in the fermentation rate. Transcriptional induction of PGM2 (phosphoglucomutase) and UGP1 (UDPG pyrophosphorylase) was impaired in Rim15p-deficient cells in the early stage of fermentation. These findings demonstrate that the decreased anabolism of glucose into UDPG and 1,3-ß-glucan triggered by a defect in the Rim15p-mediated upregulation of PGM2 and UGP1 redirects the glucose flux into glycolysis. Consistent with this, sake yeast strains with defective Rim15p exhibited impaired expression of PGM2 and UGP1 and decreased levels of ß-glucans, trehalose, and glycogen during sake fermentation. We also identified a sake yeast-specific mutation in the glycogen synthesis-associated glycogenin gene GLG2, supporting the conclusion that the glucose-anabolic pathway is impaired in sake yeast. These findings demonstrate that downregulation of the UDPG synthesis pathway is a key mechanism accelerating alcoholic fermentation in industrially utilized S. cerevisiae sake strains.