Ligand recognition and G-protein coupling of trace amine receptor TAAR1.

Trace-amine-associated receptors (TAARs), a group of biogenic amine receptors, have essential roles in neurological and metabolic homeostasis1. They recognize diverse endogenous trace amines and subsequently activate a range of G-protein-subtype signalling pathways2,3. Notably, TAAR1 has emerged as a promising therapeutic target for treating psychiatric disorders4,5. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying its ability to recognize different ligands remain largely unclear. Here we present nine cryo-electron microscopy structures, with eight showing human and mouse TAAR1 in a complex with an array of ligands, including the endogenous 3-iodothyronamine, two antipsychotic agents, the psychoactive drug amphetamine and two identified catecholamine agonists, and one showing 5-HT1AR in a complex with an antipsychotic agent. These structures reveal a rigid consensus binding motif in TAAR1 that binds to endogenous trace amine stimuli and two extended binding pockets that accommodate diverse chemotypes. Combined with mutational analysis, functional assays and molecular dynamic simulations, we elucidate the structural basis of drug polypharmacology and identify the species-specific differences between human and mouse TAAR1. Our study provides insights into the mechanism of ligand recognition and G-protein selectivity by TAAR1, which may help in the discovery of ligands or therapeutic strategies for neurological and metabolic disorders.

Longitudinal displacement and intramural shear strain of the porcine carotid artery undergo profound changes in response to catecholamines.

The effects of catecholamines on longitudinal displacements and intramural shear strain of the arterial wall are unexplored. Therefore, the common carotid artery of five anaesthetized pigs was investigated using an in-house developed noninvasive ultrasonic technique. The study protocol included intravenous infusion of low-dose epinephrine (ß-adrenoceptor activation), as well as intravenous boluses of norepinephrine (α-adrenoceptor activation). Further, the effects of ß-blockade (metoprolol) were studied. There were significant positive correlations between pulse pressure and longitudinal displacement of the intima-media complex (r = 0.72; P < 0.001), as well as between pulse pressure and intramural shear strain (r = 0.48; P < 0.001). Following administration of norepinephrine, the longitudinal displacement of the intima-media complex and intramural shear strain profoundly increased (median 190%, range 102-296%, and median 141%, range 101-182%, respectively, compared with baseline), also when given during ß-blockade (median 228%, range 133-266%, and median 158%, range 152-235%, respectively). During infusion of low-dose epinephrine, the longitudinal displacement of the intima-media complex and intramural shear strain decreased (median 88%, range 69-122%, and median 69%, range 47-117%, respectively, compared with baseline). In conclusion, the present study shows, for the first time, that the longitudinal displacement and intramural shear strain of the porcine carotid artery undergo profound changes in response to catecholamines. Increase in longitudinal displacements seems to be strongly related to α-adrenoceptor activation. Thus metoprolol is insufficient to counteract a profound increase in longitudinal displacement and intramural shear strain following a surge of norepinephrine.

[The feasibility of synthetic enhancer substances for preventive nanotherapy]. / Preventív nanoterápiás lehetöségek szintetikus enhancer anyagokkal.

Nanotechnology, the great promise of the 21st century, may revolutionize also the art of healing. Previously unexpected broadening of diagnostic procedures and methods to deliver specific drugs acting in lower than nanomolecular concentrations right to the target cells may play a crucial role in the rapid development of preventive medicine. In this context, (-)-deprenyl/selegiline, a drug developed 40 years ago and still world-wide used to treat Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and depression, by enhancing the activity of catecholaminergic neurons in the brain stem via a previously unknown mechanism [catecholaminergic activity enhancer (CAE) effect], is a highly promising experimental tool for further research in this direction. The same fits for (-)-BPAP, the newly developed enhancer substance, 100 times more potent than (-)-deprenyl, which in contrast to the latter is not only an enhancer of the catecholaminergic neurons but also of the serotonergic neurons in the brain stem. Tiny amounts of enhancer substances are closed in liposomes and marked with a specific signal to help identify the exact location of the target cells, through the activation of which the drug exerts its specific enhancer effect. The method also offers an approach to better understand the up-to-the-present unknown mechanism of the enhancer effect.

Memory processing in the avian hippocampus involves interactions between beta-adrenoceptors, glutamate receptors, and metabolism.

Noradrenaline is known to modulate memory formation in the mammalian hippocampus. We have examined how noradrenaline and selective beta-adrenoceptor (AR) agonists affect memory consolidation and how antagonists inhibit memory consolidation in the avian hippocampus. Injection of selective beta-AR agonists and antagonists at specific times within 30 min of a weakly or strongly reinforced, single-trial, bead discrimination learning test in 1-day-old chicks allowed us to determine the pattern of beta-AR involvement in hippocampal memory processing. Different beta-AR subtypes were recruited in temporal sequence after learning in the order beta(1), beta(3), and beta(2.) We provide evidence that the effect of manipulation of beta(1)-ARs by selective agonists and antagonists within 2.5 min of training parallels the action of NMDA receptor agonists and antagonists. Activation of beta(3)- and beta(2)-ARs facilitated memory but utilized different mechanisms: beta(3)-ARs by stimulating glucose uptake and metabolism, and beta(2)-ARs by increasing the breakdown of glycogen--with both metabolic events occurring in astrocytes and affecting intermediate memory. The different receptors are activated at different times within the lifetime of labile memory and within 30 min of learning. We have defined separate roles for the three beta-ARs in memory and demonstrated that the avian hippocampus is involved in learning and memory in much the same way as the hippocampus in the mammalian brain.

Adenosine and catecholamine agonists speed the flagellar beat of mammalian sperm by a non-receptor-mediated mechanism.

Activation of rapid motility apparently is one of the first steps of sperm capacitation and can be studied in vitro. Previously we found that 2-chloro-2'-deoxyadenosine or the catecholamine isoproterenol activates mouse sperm motility in vitro via a pathway mediated by cAMP that requires extracellular Ca2+, the atypical sperm adenylyl cyclase, and sperm-specific protein kinase A. We now show that several other adenosine analogs and catecholamines accelerate the flagellar beat of mouse and human sperm. Unexpectedly, the potent adenosine receptor agonist CGS21680 does not accelerate the beat, and the adenosine receptor antagonist DPCPX does not diminish the accelerating action of 2-chloro-2'-deoxyadenosine. The pharmacological profile for activation by catecholamines is also unusual. Both agonists and antagonists of beta-adrenergic receptors elevate the beat frequency. Moreover, both l-(-) and d-+ isomers of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and isoproterenol produce similar acceleration of the beat. In contrast, inhibitors of equilibrative nucleoside transporters effectively slow the onset of the accelerating action of adenosine analogs. Replacement of external Na+ with Li+ also diminishes the accumulation of cAMP and slows the resultant accelerating action of 2-chloro-2'-deoxyadenosine, suggesting the involvement of a Na+-dependent concentrative nucleoside transporter. Our results show that adenosine and catecholamine agonists act in a novel signaling pathway that does not involve G protein-coupled cell-surface receptors that link to conventional adenylyl cyclases. Instead, adenosine and analogs may be transported into sperm via equilibrative and concentrative nucleoside transporters to act on unknown intracellular targets.

Emerging drugs in neuropathic pain.

Neuropathic pain is a personally devastating and costly condition affecting 3-8% of the population. Existing treatments have limited effectiveness and produce relatively frequent adverse effects. Preclinical research has identified many promising pharmacological targets; however, reliable predictors of success in humans remain elusive. At least 50 new molecular entities have reached clinical development including: glutamate antagonists, cytokine inhibitors, vanilloid-receptor agonists, catecholamine modulators, ion-channel blockers, anticonvulsants, opioids, cannabinoids, COX inhibitors, acteylcholine modulators, adenosine receptor agonists and several miscellaneous drugs. Eight drugs are in Phase III trials at present. Strategies that may show promise over existing treatments include topical therapies, analgesic combinations and, in future, gene-related therapies. Recent years have heralded an explosion of pharmaceutical development in neuropathic pain, reflecting advanced knowledge of neurobiology and a heightened perception of the commercial value of neuropathic pain therapeutics. In the interest of improving patient care, the authors recommend implementing comparative studies throughout the development process in order to demonstrate the increased value of novel agents.

Signaling pathways for modulation of mouse sperm motility by adenosine and catecholamine agonists.

Capacitation of mammalian sperm, including alterations in flagellar motility, is presumably modulated by chemical signals encountered in the female reproductive tract. This work investigates signaling pathways for adenosine and catecholamine agonists that stimulate sperm kinetic activity. We show that 2-chloro-2'-deoxyadenosine and isoproterenol robustly accelerate flagellar beat frequency with EC50s near 10 and 0.05 microM, respectively. The several-fold acceleration is maximal by 60 sec. Although extracellular Ca2+ is required for agonist action on the flagellar beat, agonist treatment does not elevate sperm cytosolic [Ca2+] but does increase cAMP content. Acceleration does not require the conventional transmembrane adenylyl cyclase ADCY3, since it persists in sperm of ADCY3 knockout mice and in wild-type sperm in the presence of the inhibitors of conventional adenylyl cyclases SQ-22536, MDL-12330A, or 2', 5'-dideoxyadenosine. In contrast, the acceleration by these agents is absent in sperm that lack the predominant atypical adenylyl cyclase, SACY. Responses to these agonists are also absent in sperm from mice lacking the sperm-specific Calpha2 catalytic subunit of protein kinase A (PRKACA). Agonist responses also are strongly suppressed in wild-type sperm by the protein kinase inhibitor H-89. These results show that adenosine and catecholamine analogs activate sperm motility by mechanisms that require extracellular Ca2+, the atypical sperm adenylyl cyclase, cAMP, and protein kinase A.

Enantioselective synthesis and absolute configuration of (-)-1-(benzofuran-2-yl)-2-propylaminopentane, ((-)-BPAP), a highly potent and selective catecholaminergic activity enhancer.

Enantioselective synthesis and absolute configuration of (-)-1-(benzofuran-2-yl)-2-propylaminopentane ((-)-BPAP), which is a highly potent and selective catecholaminergic activity enhancer (CAE) substance, are described. The synthetic approach consists of the coupling reaction of benzofuran with (R)-N-tosyl-2-propylazirizine or (R)-N-methoxy-N-methylnorvaliamide, followed by appropriate modifications of the resulting coupling products. As the results, (-)-BPAP turned out to have the R configuration, which was finally confirmed by X-ray crystallographic analysis.

Post-training injections of catecholaminergic drugs do not modulate fear conditioning in rats and mice.

Studies employing classical fear conditioning (FC) and inhibitory avoidance (IA), two procedurally different aversive tasks, provide different insight into the neuronal mechanism(s) underlying fear learning. We examined whether immediate post-training injections of catecholaminergic drugs modulate memory consolidation in one-trial FC, as has been demonstrated in one-trial IA. Neither epinephrine (0.1, 0.3, 1.0 mg/kg intraperitoneally) nor amphetamine (1.0, 2.0 mg/kg) modulates FC to tone or context, as indicated by freezing in rats. Similarly, epinephrine (0.1, 1.0 mg/kg) and beta-adrenergic antagonists (sotalol and propranolol; 2 mg/kg) also failed to modulate FC in mice. These results indicate that FC is not susceptible to memory modulation by catecholaminergic drugs in the manner described in IA tasks.

Monoamine pharmacology of the lobster cardiac ganglion.

Monoamine agonists and antagonists were applied to the lobster cardiac ganglion in an attempt to clarify the different actions of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT) and dopamine (DA) on this rhythmic pattern generator. Experiments were designed to determine whether the similar responses to 5HT and DA applied to the anterior region of the ganglion could be separated by pharmacological approaches, and whether the different responses to 5HT applied to the anterior and posterior regions of the ganglion could be attributed to mediation by different receptors. A small number of the 5HT agonists which were tested mimic the effects of 5HT, in that they increase the frequency of bursting and decrease burst duration when applied to the whole ganglion, but decrease burst frequency and increase burst duration when applied only to the posterior half. Other 5HT agonists decrease frequency and prolong bursts when applied to the whole ganglion. Of the DA agonists tested, none acts as DA itself does. Rather, they mimic the effects of 5HT applied to the posterior ganglion, by slowing bursting and prolonging bursts. The actions of agonists do not correspond in any clear way to the receptor specificities as defined in vertebrates. Most antagonists tested do not show similar specificities to their effects in vertebrates. In particular, most of the DA antagonists tested are more effective in blocking exogenous 5HT than DA. One monoamine agonist directly alters the properties of endogenous burst-organizing potentials (driver potentials) in the motorneurons of the ganglion.

Electrostimulation of catecholamine release in the eel: modulation by antagonists and autocrine agonists.

The innervated chromaffin cells of the eel (Anguilla rostrata) release norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E), while a component of the macrovascular wall releases dopamine (DA). The release of the three catecholamines is governed by complex controls which include adrenergic, nicotinergic, muscarinergic, and opioid mechanisms. To gain insight into the interactions between neural and autocrine factors in stimulated catecholamine release, we investigated the effect of adrenergic (phentolamine and propranolol) and muscarinergic (atropine) receptor antagonists, and of autocrine opioids (met-enkephalin, codeine, and morphine) on electrostimulated catecholamine secretion in situ. The hind brain (close to the root of nerve IX) of anesthetized eels was stimulated at four different time points, and segments of the posterior cardinal vein or the caudal vein were perfused with a saline solution, with or without test substances. Electrostimulation (30 s) four times within a total study duration of 14 min increased the release of DA, NE, and E into the perfusate of the cardinal vein. The vessel contains the innervated adrenomedullary equivalent. In the noninnervated caudal vein electrical stimulation had no impact on total DA release, while there was a slight decrease of NE release and a slight increase of E release. In the cardinal vein, both the alpha-adrenergic receptor antagonist phentolamine and the beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist propranolol strongly reduced the effect of electrostimulation on catecholamine release. Met-enkephalin reduced the release of all three catecholamines to a similar degree; its impact on NE release was especially strong. Codeine reduced the catecholamine release moderately, while morphine had no effect. Atropine reduced the release of all three catecholamines in a pattern similar to that of met-enkephalin. The findings on the posterior cardinal vein indicate that neurally stimulated NE and E release (1) involves autocrine/paracrine adrenergic mechanisms, (2) involves a muscarinergic mechanism, and possibly also endogenous codeine and morphine; and (3) is antagonized by met-enkephalin. The findings on the caudal vein are further evidence that macrovascular DA release is not under direct neural control.

Insulin sensitizes beta-agonist and forskolin-stimulated lipolysis to inhibition by 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine.

In isolated rat adipocytes incubated in the absence of insulin, 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine blocked the increase in total adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) accumulation due to beta 1- or beta 3-catecholamine agonists and forskolin without affecting their stimulation of lipolysis. The inhibition of cAMP accumulation by 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine was not reflected in the total cytosolic cAMP-dependent protein kinase A activity, suggesting that the inhibition of cAMP occurred in cellular compartments distinct from those involved in the regulation of bulk protein kinase A activity. However, there was a good correlation between effects of lipolytic agents on cytosolic protein kinase A activity in fat cell extracts and lipolysis. Furthermore, it was possible to see an inhibition of the increase due to beta-agonists in cAMP accumulation, protein kinase A activity, and lipolysis by 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine in the presence of insulin. These data suggest that the readily measurable accumulation of cAMP seen with catecholamines in the absence of insulin is in a compartment separate from that involved in protein kinase A activation.