Quantitative detection and survival analysis of VBNC Salmonella Typhimurium in flour using droplet digital PCR and DNA-intercalating dyes.

The difficulty in detecting viable but non-culturable (VBNC) Salmonella by culture-dependent methods poses a risk to food safety. In our study, we applied a viability test to Salmonella following a lethal treatment and to flour samples inoculated with Salmonella to evaluate the effectiveness of viability polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Our findings revealed that the combination of both ddPCR and qPCR with those DNA-intercalating dyes could quantify viable cells at low concentrations when the plate counting method failed to detect them post-inactivation. Prolonged UV exposure did not induce cell membrane disruption, as confirmed with PMA-ddPCR, with insignificant differences in gene copies. However, samples exposed to DyeTox13 and DyeTox13 + EMA showed lower gene copy numbers, implying that enzymatic activity was decreased by UV exposure duration. In addition, temperature-dependent survival in flour revealed uniform decay rates and D values (time required for a 1 log reduction) of DNA in untreated samples across various temperatures. By contrast, different decay rates were observed with DNA-intercalating dyes (DyeTox13 and DyeTox13 + EMA), showing faster metabolic activity loss at higher temperatures in flour. The decay rates and D values, determined through plate counting and those DNA-intercalating dyes, indicated the potential presence of VBNC Salmonella. A strong correlation between DyeTox13 dyes and the plate counting method suggested DyeTox13 as a rapid alternative for detecting Salmonella in flour. The ddPCR with DNA-intercalating dyes could effectively evaluate Salmonella viability, facilitating more precise monitoring of VBNC in food. IMPORTANCE: Salmonella, a major foodborne pathogen, poses significant risks, particularly to vulnerable groups like infants, older people, and the immunocompromised. Accurate detection is vital for public health and food safety, given its potential to cause severe and life-threatening symptoms. Our study demonstrated digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) with DNA-intercalating dyes for identifying the different physiological statuses of Salmonella. Also, the application of ddPCR with DNA-intercalating dyes offers quantification of viable cells post-disinfection as an alternative method in food. Utilizing ddPCR and DNA-intercalating dyes, we enhanced the detection of VBNC Salmonella, a form often undetectable by conventional methods. This innovative approach could significantly improve the precision and efficiency of detection for viable Salmonella. By providing deeper insights into its transmission potential, our method is a critical tool in preventing outbreaks and ensuring the safety of food products. This research contributes substantially to global efforts in controlling foodborne illnesses and safeguarding public health.

The microbiological quality of flour products in the UK with respect to Salmonella and Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli.

AIM: To investigate the possible contamination of raw flour and raw flour-based products, such as pancake/batter mixes, with Salmonella, generic Escherichia coli, and Shiga-toxin-producing E. coli (STEC). Samples included flours available for sale in the UK over a period of four months (January to April 2020). The Bread and Flour regulations, 1998 state the permitted ingredients in flour and bread but it does not specify the regular monitoring of the microbiological quality of flour and flour-based products. METHODS AND RESULTS: Samples of raw flour were collected by local authority sampling officers in accordance with current guidance on microbiological food sampling then transported to the laboratory for examination. Microbiological testing was performed to detect Salmonella spp., generic E. coli, and STEC characterized for the presence of STEC virulence genes: stx1, stx2, and subtypes, eae, ipah, aggR, lt, sth, and stp, using molecular methods Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Of the 882 flours sampled, the incidence of Salmonella was 0.1% (a single positive sample that contained multiple ingredients such as flour, dried egg, and dried milk, milled in the UK), and 68 samples (7.7%) contained generic E. coli at a level of >20 CFU/g. Molecular characterization of flour samples revealed the presence of the Shiga-toxin (stx) gene in 10 samples (5 imported and 5 from the UK) (1.1%), from which STEC was isolated from 7 samples (0.8%). Salmonella and STEC isolates were sequenced to provide further characterization of genotypes and to compare to sequences of human clinical isolates held in the UKHSA archive. Using our interpretive criteria based on genetic similarity, none of the STEC flour isolates correlated with previously observed human cases, while the singular Salmonella serotype Newport isolate from the mixed ingredient product was similar to a human case in 2019, from the UK, of S. Newport. Although there have been no reported human cases of STEC matching the isolates from these flour samples, some of the same serotypes and stx subtypes detected are known to have caused illness in other contexts. CONCLUSION: Results indicate that while the incidence was low, there is a potential for the presence of Salmonella and STEC in flour, and a genetic link was demonstrated between a Salmonella isolate from a flour-based product and a human case of salmonellosis.

Sourdough fermentation for the valorization of sorghum flour: Microbiota characterization and metabolome profiling.

Due to a large adaptability to different cultivation conditions and limited input compared to other cereals, sorghum is considered an emerging crop. Its antioxidant properties, high fiber content and low glycemic index also make it a valuable addition to a healthy diet, nevertheless, the presence of antinutritional factors and the lack of gluten, hamper its use as food ingredient. This study investigated the impact of sourdough fermentation on sorghum nutritional quality. Lactic acid bacteria dominating sorghum flour and sourdough were identified by culture-dependent analysis revealing Lactiplantibacillus plantarum as the dominant species found in the mature sourdough, whereas Weissella cibaria and Weissella paramesenteroides were the species isolated the most after the first refreshment. Among yeasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae was the most prevalent. Lactic acid bacteria pro-technological and functional performances as starter were evaluated in sorghum type-II sourdoughs through an integrated characterization combining chromatographic and NMR spectroscopic techniques. The metabolic profile of the strains mainly grouped together W. cibaria strains and W. paramesenteroides AI7 which distinguished for the intense proteolysis but also for the presence of compounds particularly interesting from a physiological perspective (allantoin, glutathione, γ-aminobutyric acid and 2-hydroxy-3-methylbutyric acid), whose concentration increased during fermentation in a species or strain specific matter.

Insights into the starch and proteins molecular structure changes of foxtail millet sourdough: Effect of fermentation from grains of cereal to pre-meal.

This study investigated the effects of foxtail millet sourdough fermentation time (0, 8, 16, and 24 h) on the protein structural properties, thermomechanical, fermentation, dynamic rheological, starch granules crystalline regions molecular mobility, and starch microstructural characteristics. The fermentation led to a significant increase in the concentration of free amino acids from protein hydrolysis. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed changes in protein secondary structure and the presence of functional groups of different bioactive compounds. The result of thermomechanical properties showed a significant increase in the stability (0.70-0.79 min) and anti-retrogradation ability (2.29-3.14 Nm) of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) sourdough compared to the control dough, showing a wider processing applicability with radar profiler index. In contrast, sourdoughs with lower tan δ values had higher elasticity and strength. Scanning electron microscopy showed that the surface of the starch appeared from smooth to uneven with patchy shapes and cavities, which declined the crystallinity from 34.00 % to 21.57 %, 23.64 %, 25.09 %, and 26.34 % respectively. Fermentation changed the To, Tp, Tc, and ΔH of the starch. The results of the study will have great potential for application in the whole grain sourdough industry.

Validation of a Simulated Commercial English Muffin Baking Process to control Salmonella Contamination.

A validation study was conducted to investigate the effect of the English muffin baking process to control Salmonella contamination and to study the thermal inactivation kinetic parameters (D- and z-values) of Salmonella in English muffin dough. The unbleached bread flour was inoculated with 3 serovar Salmonella cocktail (Salmonella serovars viz., Newport, Typhimurium, and Senftenberg), and dried back to its preinoculated water activity levels with 7.46 ± 0.12 log CFU/g of Salmonella concentration. The Salmonella inoculated flour was used to prepare English muffin batter and baked at 204.4°C (400°F) for 18 min and allowed to cool at ambient air for 15 min. The English muffins reached 99 ± 0°C (211.96 ± 0.37°F) as their maximum mean internal temperature during baking. The pH and aw of English muffin dough were 5.01 ± 0.01 and 0.947 ± 0.003, respectively. At the end of the 18-min baking period, the Salmonella inoculated English muffins recorded a more than 5 log CFU/g reduction on the injury-recovery media. The D-values of 3 serovar cocktails of Salmonella at 55, 58.5, and 62°C were 42.0 ± 5.68, 15.6 ± 0.73, and 3.0 ± 0.32 min, respectively; and the z-value was 6.2 ± 0.59°C. The water activity (aw) of the English muffin crumb (0.947 ± 0.003 to 0.9557 ± 0.001) remained statistically unchanged during baking, whereas the aw of the muffin crust decreased significantly (0.947 ± 0.003 to 0.918 ± 0.002) by the end of 18 min of baking. This study validates and documents the first scientific evidence that baking English muffins at 204.4°C (400°F) for 18 min acts as an effective kill step by controlling Salmonella population by >5 log CFU/g.

Exploring the flavor changes in mung bean flour through Lactobacillus fermentation: insights from volatile compounds and non-targeted metabolomics analysis.

BACKGROUND: Mung beans are highly nutritious but their leguminous flavor limits their development. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) fermentation can decrease unwanted bean flavors in legumes and enhance their flavor. This study examined the influence of Lactobacillus fermentation on the flavor characteristics of mung bean flour (MBF) using volatile compounds and non-targeted metabolomics. RESULTS: Lactobacillus plantarum LP90, Lactobacillus casei LC89, and Lactobacillus acidophilus LA85 eliminated 61.37%, 48.29%, and 43.73%, respectively, of the primary bean odor aldehydes from MBF. The relative odor activity value (ROAV) results showed that fermented mung bean flour (FMBF) included volatile chemicals that contributed to fruity, flowery, and milky aromas. These compounds included ethyl acetate, hexyl formate, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, and 2,3-butanedione. The levels of amino acids with a fresh sweet flavor increased significantly by 93.89, 49.40, and 35.27% in LP90, LC89, and LA85, respectively. A total of 49 up-regulated and 13 down-regulated significantly differential metabolites were annotated, and ten metabolic pathways were screened for contributing to the flavor. The correlation between important volatile compounds and non-volatile substances relies on two primary metabolic pathways: the citric acid cycle pathway and the amino acid metabolic system. CONCLUSION: The flavor of MBF was enhanced strongly by the process of Lactobacillus fermentation, with LP90 having the most notable impact. These results serve as a reference for identifying the flavor of FMBF. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Mechanism of carbohydrate and protein conversion during sourdough fermentation: An analysis based on representative Chinese sourdough microbiota.

Sourdough fermentation is attracting growing attention because of its positive effects on properties of leavened baked good. However, the changes in dough features and the mechanisms behind them are not well understood, which limits its widespread use. In this study, we assessed the effects of representative lactic acid bacteria in sourdough monoculture or co-culture with yeasts on dough characteristics. Physicochemical analysis identified increased proteolysis and enhanced nutritional properties of co-culture groups. However, a reduction in organic acids contents of co-culture groups compared to monoculture was detected, and this effect was not limited by the yeast species. The RNA sequencing further demonstrated that the presence of yeast enhanced the protein metabolic activity of lactic acid bacteria, while decreased its organic acid biosynthetic activity. Moreover, the proteomic analysis revealed that endogenous metabolic proteins of flour, such as pyruvate kinase, glucosyltransferase and pyruvate dehydrogenase play a key role in carbohydrate metabolism during fermentation. This study uncovered the influence of typical microorganisms and endogenous enzymes on dough characteristics based on different aspects. Bacteria-mediated consumption of proteins and increased proteolysis in co-culture groups may underlie the improved digestibility and nutritional effects of sourdough fermented products, which provides an important basis for nutrient fortified bread making with multi-strain leavening agent.

Isolation, identification, and stability of sourdough microbiota from spontaneously fermented Norwegian legumes.

Fermentation has recently been rediscovered as an attractive technique to process legumes, as it can improve the nutritional quality and value of the end product. This study investigated the dynamics and stability of the microbial communities in spontaneously fermented sourdoughs made from flours of two cultivars of faba beans and two cultivars of peas. Sourdoughs were established by the backslopping technique, and the microbial development at 22 °C and 30 °C was followed by culture dependent and culture independent methods. The utilization of substrates and formation of metabolites were also determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. A stable pH was reached in all the sourdoughs after 11-15 days of daily backslopping. Lactic acid bacteria and yeast from pH stable sourdoughs were isolated, characterized and identified. The fermentation temperature influenced the development of the microbial community and the substrate utilization during spontaneous fermentation. In the 30 °C fermentations, one species dominated (Lactiplantibacillus plantarum/pentosus), a lower pH was achieved, and the available substrates were more extensively converted. The 22 °C fermentation resulted in a more diverse microbial community (Lactiplantibacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus), a higher pH, and more residual substrates were available after fermentation. Yeasts were only detected in one of the pea sourdoughs fermented at 30 °C, with Saccharomyces cerevisiae being the dominant species. Nearly all sourdoughs were depleted of maltose after 24 h fermentation cycles, and higher levels of lactic and acetic acid were detected in 30 °C fermen-tations. This research adds to our understanding of the autochthonous microbial community present in faba beans and peas as well as their natural capacity to establish themselves and ferment legume flours. These findings enhance the possibilities of utilizing and improving plant based protein sources.

Tailor-made fermentation of sourdough reduces the acrylamide content in rye crispbread and improves its sensory and nutritional characteristics.

Thirty strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae E8.9 (wild type) were used to formulate fifteen combinations of starters by mixing two or three LAB with the yeast (ratio LAB: yeast, 10: 1). Such combinations were used to prepare rye sourdough and their performance in term of acidification and biochemical characteristics during fermentation at two temperatures (30 and 37 °C) and duration (4 and 8 h) were screened. The best thirteen sourdough formulations were selected and used for rye crispbread making. The analysis of acrylamide concentration demonstrated that 11 out 13 formulations resulted in significant decreases of concentration compared to the baker's yeast (control), with reductions up to 79.6 %. The rye sourdough crispbreads showed also higher amount of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) compared to the baker's yeast control. Two rye sourdough crispbreads, selected to represent the opposite extremes within the thirteen formulations in term of VOC profiles and fermentation performances, demonstrated better sensory and nutritional features, such as phytic acid reduction (up to 47.3 %), and enhanced total free amino acid compared to the control. These evidences suggest the potential of tailored sourdough fermentations as alternative and suitable biotechnological strategy for lowering acrylamide levels in rye crispbread.

Sourdough starters exhibit similar succession patterns but develop flour-specific climax communities.

The microbial fermentation behind sourdough bread is among our oldest technologies, yet there are many opportunities for sourdough science to learn from traditional bakers. We analyzed 16S rRNA sequences in R to assess the bacterial community structure and performance of 40 starters grown from 10 types of flour over 14 days, and identified six distinct stages of succession. At each stage, bacterial taxa correlate with determinants of bread quality including pH, rise, and aromatic profile. Day 1 starter cultures were dominated by microorganisms commonly associated with plants and flour, and by aromas similar to toasted grain/cereal. Bacterial diversity peaked from days 2-6 as taxa shifted from opportunistic/generalist bacteria associated with flour inputs, toward specialized climax bacterial communities (days 10-14) characterized by acid-tolerant taxa and fruity (p < 3.03e-03), sour (p < 1.60e-01), and fermented (p < 1.47e-05) aromas. This collection of traits changes predictably through time, regardless of flour type, highlighting patterns of bacterial constraints and dynamics that are conserved across systems and scales. Yet, while sourdough climax communities exhibit similar markers of maturity (i.e., pH ≤ 4 and enriched in Lactobacillus (mean abundance 48.1%), Pediococcus (mean abundance 22.7%), and/or Gluconobacter (mean abundance 19.1%)), we also detected specific taxa and aromas associated with each type of flour. Our results address important ecological questions about the relationship between community structure and starter performance, and may enable bakers to deliberately select for specific sourdough starter and bread characteristics.

The rise of the sourdough: Genome-scale metabolic modeling-based approach to design sourdough starter communities with tailored-made properties.

Sourdough starters harbor microbial consortia that benefit the final product's aroma and volume. The complex nature of these spontaneously developed communities raises challenges in predicting the fermentation phenotypes. Herein, we demonstrated for the first time in this field the potential of genome-scale metabolic modeling (GEMs) in the study of sourdough microbial communities. Broad in-silico modeling of microbial growth was applied on communities composed of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and different Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) species, which mainly predominate in sourdough starters. Simulations of model-represented communities associated specific bacterial compositions with sourdough phenotypes. Based on ranking the phenotypic performances of different combinations, Pediococcus spp. - Lb. sakei group members were predicted to have an optimal effect considering the increase in S. cerevisiae growth abilities and overall CO2 secretion rates. Flux Balance Analysis (FBA) revealed mutual relationships between the Pediococcus spp. - Lb. sakei group members and S. cerevisiae through bidirectional nutrient dependencies, and further underlined that these bacteria compete with the yeast over nutrients to a lesser extent than the rest LAB species. Volatile compounds (VOCs) production was further modeled, identifying species-specific and community-related VOCs production profiles. The in-silico models' predictions were validated by experimentally building synthetic sourdough communities and assessing the fermentation phenotypes. The Pediococcus spp. - Lb. sakei group was indeed associated with increased yeast cell counts and fermentation rates, demonstrating a 25 % increase in the average leavening rates during the first 10 fermentation hours compared to communities with a lower representation of these group members. Overall, these results provide a possible novel strategy towards the de-novo design of sourdough starter communities with tailored-made characterizations, including a shortened leavening period.

A chestnut-hemp type-II sourdough to improve technological, nutritional, and sensory properties of gluten-free bread.

The nutritional quality of gluten-free (GF) products is usually improved by using flours derived from alternative grains (e.g., pseudocereals and legumes), additives and hydrolysates, leading to long ingredient lists in the labels, that conflict with current customer expectations. In this work, chestnut, carob, and hemp flours were used as mixed ingredients for making a gluten-free type-II sourdough. Three exopolysaccharides-producer lactic acid bacteria, belonging to Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Weissella cibaria, and Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, were used, and the fermentation processes (6 log10 cfu/g, 25 °C, 16 h) optimize to maximize the EPS synthesis (15.70 ± 2.1 mg/kg). The chestnut-hemp (70:30) type-II sourdough was included in a rice/corn gluten-free bread recipe also containing psyllium flour as structuring agent. Although the fortification with unfermented flours already led the achievement of 6 g/100 g of fiber (high fiber, Regulation EC n. 1924/2006) and content of magnesium higher than the daily reference intakes, the use of type-II sourdoughs led to a further structural, sensory, and nutritional improvements (e.g., decreasing the main anti-nutritional factor phytic acid). This work demonstrated that the use of ad-hoc selected ingredients and optimized protocol can be used to produce a GF and "clean label" bread with optimal nutritional features and appreciable sensory and structural properties.

NMR-Based Metabolomic Study on Phaseolus vulgaris Flour Fermented by Lactic Acid Bacteria and Yeasts.

In recent years, fermented foods have attracted increasing attention due to their important role in the human diet, since they supply beneficial health effects, providing important sources of nutrients. In this respect, a comprehensive characterization of the metabolite content in fermented foods is required to achieve a complete vision of physiological, microbiological, and functional traits. In the present preliminary study, the NMR-based metabolomic approach combined with chemometrics has been applied, for the first time, to investigate the metabolite content of Phaseolus vulgaris flour fermented by different lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts. A differentiation of microorganisms (LAB and yeasts), LAB metabolism (homo- and heterofermentative hexose fermentation), LAB genus (Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Pediococcus), and novel genera (Lacticaseibacillus, Lactiplantibacillus, and Lentilactobacillus) was achieved. Moreover, our findings showed an increase of free amino acids and bioactive molecules, such as GABA, and a degradation of anti-nutritional compounds, such as raffinose and stachyose, confirming the beneficial effects of fermentation processes and the potential use of fermented flours in the production of healthy baking foods. Finally, among all microorganisms considered, the Lactiplantibacillus plantarum species was found to be the most effective in fermenting bean flour, as a larger amount of free amino acids were assessed in their analysis, denoting more intensive proteolytic activity.

Effect of oil exposure stages on the heat resistance of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis phage type 30 in peanut flour.

The oil in low-moisture foods (LMFs) shows protective effects on bacteria during thermal processing. However, the circumstances under which this protective effect strengthens remain unclear. This study aimed to understand which step of the oil exposure to bacterial cells (inoculation, isothermal inactivation, or recovery and enumeration step) in LMFs can enhance their heat resistance. Peanut flour (PF) and defatted PF (DPF) were selected as the oil-rich and oil-free LMF models. Salmonella enterica Enteritidis Phage Type 30 (S. Enteritidis) was inoculated into four designated PF groups representing different oil exposure stages. It was isothermally treated to obtain heat resistance parameters. At a constant moisture content (aw,25°C = 0.32 ± 0.02) and controlled aw,85°C (0.32 ± 0.02), S. Enteritidis exhibited significantly high (p < 0.05) D values in oil-rich sample groups. For instance, the heat resistance values of S. Enteritidis in the PF-DPF and DPF-PF groups were D80°C of 138.22 ± 7.45 min and 101.89 ± 7.82 min; however, the D80°C in the DPF-DPF group was 34.54 ± 2.07 min. The oil addition after the thermal treatment also helped injured bacterial recovery in the enumeration. For instance, the D80°C, D85°C, and D90°C values in the DFF-DPF oil groups were 36.86 ± 2.30, 20.65 ± 1.23, and 7.91 ± 0.52 min, respectively, which were higher than those in the DPF-DPF group at 34.54 ± 2.07, 17.87 ± 0.78, and 7.10 ± 0.52 min. We confirmed that the oil protected S. Enteritidis in PF in all three stages: desiccation process, heat treatment, and recovery of bacterial cells in plates.

Nutritional benefits of sourdoughs: A systematic review.

Food fermentation using sourdough-i.e., consortia of lactic bacteria and yeasts-is increasingly considered among the public as a natural transformation yielding nutritional benefits; however, it is unclear whether its alleged properties are validated by science. The aim of this study was to systematically review the clinical evidence related to the effect of sourdough bread on health. Bibliographic searches were performed in 2 different databases (The Lens and PubMed) up to February 2022. Eligible studies were randomized controlled trials involving adults, healthy or not, given any type of sourdough bread compared with those given any type of yeast bread. A total of 573 articles were retrieved and investigated, of which 25 clinical trials met the inclusion criteria. The 25 clinical trials included a total of 542 individuals. The main outcomes investigated in the retrieved studies were glucose response (N = 15), appetite (N = 3), gastrointestinal markers (N = 5), and cardiovascular markers (N = 2). Overall, it is currently difficult to establish a clear consensus with regards to the beneficial effects of sourdough per se on health when compared with other types of bread because a variety of factors, such as the microbial composition of sourdough, fermentation parameters, cereals, and flour types potentially influence the nutritional properties of bread. Nonetheless, in studies using specific strains and fermentation conditions, significant improvements were observed in parameters related to glycemic response, satiety, or gastrointestinal comfort after bread ingestion. The reviewed data suggest that sourdough has great potential to produce a variety of functional foods; however, its complex and dynamic ecosystem requires further standardization to conclude its clinical health benefits.

Fate of salmonella and shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli on wheat grain during tempering.

Outbreaks of Salmonella and Shiga-toxin producing Escherichia coli (STEC) linked to wheat flour led to increased interest in characterizing the fate of Salmonella and STEC on wheat during processing. Tempering is the stage of wheat processing where water is added to toughen the bran prior to milling, which has the potential to influence pathogen behavior on the kernels. This study aimed to quantify changes in the numbers of STEC and Salmonella inoculated onto soft red winter wheat, and to observe potential changes in the distribution of the pathogens on the surface of kernels during tempering. Lab-scale tempering experiments were conducted to quantify the water activity of and bacterial populations on wheat grain at various time points during 16 h of tempering. The highest water activity observed throughout 16 h of tempering was 0.88. There was no significant change (p > 0.05) in numbers of Salmonella, STEC, or native mesophiles. Using confocal microscopy, observation of Salmonella and STEC cells expressing mCherry on wheat kernels showed an even distribution of inoculated cells, though the localization of cells on kernels did not change significantly after tempering. Even though the environment was not favorable for pathogen replication on grain, the population remained stable, suggesting that disinfection of the kernels prior to milling could reduce food safety concerns in flour.

Liquid sourdough from stone-ground soft wheat (Triticum aestivum) flour: Development and exploitation in the breadmaking process.

The aim of the study was to set up a liquid sourdough obtained using stone-ground soft wheat (Triticum aestivum) flour to be exploited in breadmaking. Therefore, a Type II sourdough (dough yield = 350) was developed from a stable stone-ground wheat Type I sourdough (dough yield = 156) used as inoculum. Both sourdoughs were analyzed for lactic acid bacteria (LAB) viable counts, pH and total titratable acidity (TTA), LAB biodiversity by a combined culture-dependent and -independent approach (PCR-DGGE) and they were tested for their breadmaking ability. In addition, the chemical and rheological features and volatile organic compounds of the stone-ground soft wheat flour used in the experiment were investigated. The flour had a high protein content, good bakery properties and it also presented a rich aroma pattern characterized not only by the prevalence of green grass, flowery, and sweet aromas but also nutty, roasted and popcorn aromas. The sourdoughs I and II used in the trial were characterized by viable LAB counts, pH and TTA values typical of mature sourdoughs, i.e., approximately 9 log cfu gr-1 and mL, pH 3.9 and 10 mL 0.1 N NaOH. In addition, Levilactobacillus brevis and Companilactobacillus paralimentarius species represented the LAB stable microbiota of both sourdoughs. Both sourdoughs efficiently produce acceptable experimental breads characterized by different volatile profiles thus indicating that the type of sourdough fermentation significantly influenced the features of the final products. Overall, for the first time in the present study stone-ground wheat flour and bread have been characterized for their volatile aroma profile and sensory properties.

Effect of fermentation time and addition amount of rice sourdoughs with different microbial compositions on the physicochemical properties of three gluten-free rice breads.

This study aimed to better understand the impact of microbial growth and metabolism on rice sourdough and their relationship with quality characteristics of rice breads. Therefore, this research determined the microbial compositions and biochemical characteristics of indica rice (IR), japonica rice (JR) and waxy rice (WR) sourdough within 72 h fermentation. And the effects of different fermentation time and dosage of rice sourdough on rheology of rice doughs, quality characteristics of rice breads were studied. The results showed that the dominant bacteria Leuconostoc changed the processing properties of rice doughs through producing organic acids and reducing sugars. Adding 30 % rice sourdough had the best effect on improving specific volume of rice breads. And IR and JR breads with sourdough fermented 48 h had the highest chewiness, cohesiveness, resilience and the lowest hardness, while WR breads had high viscosity and poor overall structure, which was not suitable for making gluten-free bread.

Thermal Inactivation of Salmonella enterica and Nonpathogenic Bacterial Surrogates in Wheat Flour by Baking in a Household Oven.

ABSTRACT: Wheat flour has been implicated in recalls and outbreaks linked to Salmonella and pathogenic Escherichia coli. An instructional online video posted on a popular YouTube channel with over 20 million subscribers claimed that safe raw cookie dough could be made from flour baked in a household oven at 177°C (350°F) for 5 min, but no evidence in support of that claim was provided. This study was conducted to assess thermal inactivation of two Salmonella strains, as well as Enterobacter aerogenes and Pantoea dispersa in wheat flour during home oven baking. Wheat flour was inoculated with Salmonella Enteritidis PT 30, Salmonella Typhimurium PT 42, or their potential surrogates at high concentrations (4.8 to 6.1 log CFU/g) before baking in a consumer-style convection oven (toaster oven) at 149, 177, and 204°C (300, 350, or 400°F) for up to 7 min. Flour was heated in an aluminum tray, with a maximum depth of ∼2 cm. Heated wheat flour samples (5 g each) were enumerated in triplicate, and the microbial concentration was expressed in log CFU per gram. Thermal profiles of the geometric center of the wheat flour pile and air in the oven during the baking were recorded. Water activity of wheat flour samples was also measured before and after baking. The water activity of wheat flour decreased, as baking temperature and time increased. Water activity values ranged from 0.30 to 0.06 after 7 min, as oven temperature increased from 149 to 204°C. Thermal inactivation kinetics were linear until counts approached the limit of detection for all microorganisms. D-values for Salmonella and potential surrogate strains ranged from 1.86 to 2.13 min at 149°C air temperature, 1.66 to 1.92 min at 177°C air temperature, and 1.12 to 1.38 min at 204°C air temperature. Both Salmonella strains and surrogates showed similar inactivation patterns. Baking of wheat flour in household toaster ovens has potential as an inactivation treatment of pathogenic bacteria in consumer homes, despite its low water activity.