Highly efficient catalytic transfer hydrogenation for the conversion of nitrobenzene to aniline over PdO/TiO2: The key role of in situ switching from PdO to Pd.

The reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline is very important for both pollution control and chemical synthesis. Nevertheless, difficulties still remain in developing a catalytic system having high efficiency and selectivity for the production of aniline. Herein, it was found that PdO nanoparticles highly dispersed on TiO2 support (PdO/TiO2) functioned as a highly efficient catalyst for the reduction of nitrobenzene in the presence of NaBH4. Under favorable conditions, 95% of the added nitrobenzene (1 mmol/L) was reduced within 1 min with an ultra-low apparent activation energy of 10.8 kJ/mol by using 0.5%PdO/TiO2 as catalysts and 2 mmol/L of NaBH4 as reductants, and the selectivity to aniline even reached up to 98%. The active hydrogen species were perceived as dominant species during the hydrogenation of nitrobenzene by the results of isotope labeling experiments and ESR spectroscopic. A mechanism was proposed as follows: PdO activates the nitro groups and leads to in-situ generation of Pd, and the generated Pd acts as the reduction sites to produce active hydrogen species. In this catalytic system, nitrobenzene prefers to be adsorbed on the PdO nanoparticles of the PdO/TiO2 composite. Subsequently, the addition of NaBH4 results in in-situ generation of a Pd/PdO/TiO2 composite from the PdO/TiO2 composite, and the Pd nanoclusters would activate NaBH4 to generate active hydrogen species to attack the adsorbed nitro groups. This work will open up a new approach for the catalytic transfer hydrogenation of nitrobenzene to aniline in green chemistry.

Characterization of O2 uncoupling in biodegradation reactions of nitroaromatic contaminants catalyzed by rieske oxygenases.

Rieske oxygenases are known as catalysts that enable the cleavage of aromatic and aliphatic C-H bonds in structurally diverse biomolecules and recalcitrant organic environmental pollutants through substrate oxygenations and oxidative heteroatom dealkylations. Yet, the unproductive O2 activation, which is concomitant with the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS), is typically not taken into account when characterizing Rieske oxygenase function. Even if considered an undesired side reaction, this O2 uncoupling allows for studying active site perturbations, enzyme mechanisms, and how enzymes evolve as environmental microorganisms adapt their substrates to alternative carbon and energy sources. Here, we report on complementary methods for quantifying O2 uncoupling based on mass balance or kinetic approaches that relate successful oxygenations to total O2 activation and ROS formation. These approaches are exemplified with data for two nitroarene dioxygenases (nitrobenzene and 2-nitrotoluene dioxygenase) which have been shown to mono- and dioxygenate substituted nitroaromatic compounds to substituted nitrobenzylalcohols and catechols, respectively.

Deciphering the catalytic activity of nickel anchored on Fe3O4@SiO2@3-CPMS@L as a magnetically recoverable nanocatalyst for the efficacious reduction of 4-nitrophenol, nitrobenzene, and methyl orange.

In this paper, a versatile heterogeneous nanocatalyst was fabricated employing a self-assembly technique. To commence, Fe3O4 MNPs were coated with a thin layer of SiO2 using the stobbers method. Subsequently, the surface was further functionalized with 3-CPMS, followed by a reaction with a Schiff base. Finally, nickel NPs were deposited on the surface through in situ deposition, forming the Fe3O4@SiO2@3-CPMS@L-Ni magnetic nanocatalyst. The architecture of this magnetic nanocatalyst was meticulously characterized through an array of sophisticated techniques: XRD, FT-IR, SEM, TEM, BET and VSM. The XRD diffraction pattern confirmed the presence of Fe3O4 MNPs, SiO2, and Ni peaks, providing evidence for successful synthesis. Moreover, the successful functionalization with a Schiff base was demonstrated by the presence of an azomethane peak in the FTIR spectra of the synthesized nanocatalyst. The fabricated nanocatalyst was adeptly utilized for the reduction of 4-NP, NB, and MO demonstrating a remarkably elevated rate of catalytic efficacy. Moreover, this catalyst was effortlessly retrievable through the application of an external magnet, and it maintained its catalytic prowess across at least six consecutive cycles. The utilization of water as an environmentally friendly solvent, coupled with the utilization of abundant and cost-effective nickel catalyst instead of the costly Pd or Pt catalysts, along with the successful recovery and scalability of the catalyst, render this method highly advantageous from both environmental and economic perspectives for the reduction of 4-NP, NB, and MO.

An N-ortho-nitrobenzylated benzanilide amino acid enables control of the conformation and membrane permeability of cyclic peptides.

We designed and synthesized an N-ortho-nitrobenzylated benzanilide-based amino acid having a cis-amide structure that facilitates cyclization of peptides containing it. Photo-induced removal of the nitrobenzyl group from this residue in the resulting cyclized peptides dramatically alters their conformation and passive membrane permeability via complete cis-amide to trans-amide conversion.

Responses of nitrobenzene removal performance and microbial community by modified biochar supported zerovalent iron in anaerobic soil.

Biochar-supported ZVI have received increasing attention for their potential to remove nitrobenzene in groundwater and soil. However, the capacity of this material to enhance the biological reduction of nitrobenzene and alter microbial communities in anaerobic groundwater have not been explored. In this study, the nitrobenzene removal performance and mechanism of modified biochar-supported zerovalent iron (ZVI) composites were explored in anaerobic soil. The results showed that the 700 °C biochar composite enhanced the removal of nitrobenzene and inhibited its release from soil to the aqueous phase. NaOH-700-Fe50 had the highest removal rate of nitrobenzene, reaching 64.4%. However, the 300 °C biochar composite inhibited the removal of nitrobenzene. Microbial degradation rather than ZVI-mediated reduction was the main nitrobenzene removal pathway. The biochar composites changed the richness and diversity of microbial communities. ZVI enhanced the symbiotic relationship between microbial genera and weakened competition between soil microbial genera. In summary, the 700 °C modified biochar composite enhanced the removal of nitrobenzene by increasing microbial community richness and diversity, by upregulating functional genes, and by promoting electron transfer. Overall, the modified biochar-supported ZVI composites could be used for soil remediation, and NaOH-700-Fe50 is a promising composite material for the on-site remediation of nitrobenzene-contaminated groundwater.

Orthogonal Deprotection of Photolabile Protecting Groups and Its Application in Oligosaccharide Synthesis.

We herein report for the first time the inter- and intramolecular orthogonal cleavage of two ortho-nitrobenzyl (NB) analogues. It is shown that the nitroveratryl (NV) group can be photolyzed with high priority when NV and ortho-nitrobenzyl carbonate (oNBC) are used together as the protecting groups of glycans. Notably, the photolytic products could be used directly in the subsequent glycosylation without further purification. With the above-mentioned orthogonal photolabile protecting group strategy in hand, a Mycobacterium tuberculosis tetrasaccharide and a derivative of glucosyl glycerol were rapidly prepared.

In vitro evaluation of the selective cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of three synthetic ortho-nitrobenzyl derivatives in human cancer cell lines, with and without metabolic activation.

Although the presence of nitro groups in chemicals can be recognized as structural alerts for mutagenicity and carcinogenicity, nitroaromatic compounds have attracted considerable interest as a class of agents that can serve as source of potential new anticancer agents. In the present study, the in vitro cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and mutagenicity of three synthetic ortho-nitrobenzyl derivatives (named ON-1, ON-2 and ON-3) were evaluated by employing human breast and ovarian cancer cell lines. A series of biological assays was carried out with and without metabolic activation. Complementarily, computational predictions of the pharmacokinetic properties and druglikeness of the compounds were performed in the Swiss ADME platform. The MTT assay showed that the compounds selectively affected selectively the cell viability of cancer cells in comparison with a nontumoral cell line. Additionally, the metabolic activation enhanced cytotoxicity, and the compounds affected cell survival, as demonstrated by the clonogenic assay. The comet assay, the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay, and the immunofluorescence of the γ-H2AX foci formation assay have that the compounds caused chromosomal damage to the cancer cells, with and without metabolic activation. The results obtained in the present study showed that the compounds assessed were genotoxic and mutagenic, inducing double-strand breaks in the DNA structure. The high selectivity indices observed for the compounds ON-2 and ON-3, especially after metabolic activation with the S9 fraction, must be highlighted. These experimental biological results, as well as the theoretical properties predicted for the compounds have shown that they are promising anticancer candidates to be exploited in additional studies.

Photostability evaluation of manidipine tablets and structural determination of its photoproducts.

Manidipine (MP) is a dihydropyridine drug, which is treated for the reduction of high blood pressure. The aim of this study is to clarify the photochemical behavior of MP in the case of ultraviolet light (UV) irradiation for MP tablets (Calslot® tablets). The tablets and its altered forms (powders and suspensions) were UV-irradiated using a black light, and residual amounts of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) were monitored by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Due to the photoproducts of MP were detected in HPLC chromatograms, the elucidation of their chemical structures was carried out utilizing electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). As a result, APIs in Calslot® tablets were almost completely photodegraded in the case that Calslot® tablets were suspended in an aqueous media along with the generation of some MP photoproducts. LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis clarified the chemical structures of three MP photoproducts, indicating that they were a pyridine analogue, benzophenone and a hydrolysate. Benzophenone was a main MP photoproduct. It was possible that MP might be firstly oxidized to form its pyridine analogue, followed by the oxidation of a dimethyl methylene moiety. This moiety seemed to be eliminated as a benzophenone, and the cleavage of an ester bond of the residual moiety resulted in the generation of a hydrolysate. Finally, toxicological potencies of MP and its photoproducts were predicted in silico toxicity evaluation, suggesting some of biological effects of the photoproducts might be altered compared with MP.

Determination of nitrobenzene potential genotoxic impurities in nifedipine with GC-MS.

There is an increasing scientific interest in the detection of genotoxic impurities (GTIs), with nitrobenzene compounds being considered potential genotoxic impurities due to their structural alerts, which demonstrates a threat to drug safety for patient. While current reports on the detection of nifedipine impurity primarily focus on general impurities in nifedipine. In this study, an effective and simple gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method was established and verified for the separation and quantification of 2-nitrotoluene, 2-nitrobenzyl alcohol, 2-nitrobenzaldehyde, 3-nitrobenzaldehyde, 4-nitrobenzaldehyde, and 2-nitrobenzyl bromide in nifedipine, which have not been previously reported. The validation of this GC-MS method was conducted following the International Conference of Harmonization (ICH) guidelines, exhibiting good linearity within the range of 2-40 µg/g and accuracy between 84.6 % and 107.8 %, the RSD% of intra-day and inter-day precision was in the range of 1.77-4.55 %, stability and robustness also met acceptance criteria. This method filled the gap in detection method for nitrobenzene compounds in nifedipine, offering a novel method and technical support for nifedipine quality control.

Insight into the mechanism of chlorinated nitroaromatic compounds anaerobic reduction with mackinawite (FeS) nanoparticles.

Anaerobic biotechnology for wastewaters treatment can nowadays be considered as state of the art methods. Nonetheless, this technology exhibits certain inherent limitations when employed for industrial wastewater treatment, encompassing elevated substrate consumption, diminished electron transfer efficiency, and compromised system stability. To address the above issues, increasing interest is being given to the potential of using conductive non-biological materials, e,g., iron sulfide (FeS), as a readily accessible electron donor and electron shuttle in the biological decontamination process. In this study, Mackinawite nanoparticles (FeS NPs) were studied for their ability to serve as electron donors for p-chloronitrobenzene (p-CNB) anaerobic reduction within a coupled system. This coupled system achieved an impressive p-CNB removal efficiency of 78.3 ± 2.9% at a FeS NPs dosage of 1 mg/L, surpassing the efficiencies of 62.1 ± 1.5% of abiotic and 30.6 ± 1.6% of biotic control systems, respectively. Notably, the coupled system exhibited exclusive formation of aniline (AN), indicating the partial dechlorination of p-CNB. The improvements observed in the coupled system were attributed to the increased activity in the electron transport system (ETS), which enhanced the sludge conductivity and nitroaromatic reductases activity. The analysis of equivalent electron donors confirmed that the S2- ions dominated the anaerobic reduction of p-CNB in the coupled system. However, the anaerobic reduction of p-CNB would be adversely inhibited when the FeS NPs dosage exceeded 5 g/L. In a continuous operation, the p-CNB concentration and HRT were optimized as 125 mg/L and 40 h, respectively, resulting in an outstanding p-CNB removal efficiency exceeding 94.0% after 160 days. During the anaerobic reduction process, as contributed by the predominant bacterium of Thiobacillus with a 6.6% relative abundance, a mass of p-chloroaniline (p-CAN) and AN were generated. Additionally, Desulfomonile was emerged with abundances ranging from 0.3 to 0.7%, which was also beneficial for the reduction of p-CNB to AN. The long-term stable performance of the coupled system highlighted that anaerobic technology mediated by FeS NPs has a promising potential for the treatment of wastewater containing chlorinated nitroaromatic compounds, especially without the aid of organic co-substrates.

A sequencing electroreduction-electrooxidation system driven by atomic hydrogen for enhancing 2,4-dichloronitrobenzene removal from wastewater.

The sequencing electroreduction-electrooxidation process has emerged as a promising approach for the degradation of the chloronitrobenzenes (CNBs) due to its elimination of electro-withdrawing groups in the reduction process, facilitating further removal in the subsequent oxidation process. Herein, we developed a cathode consisting of atom Pd on a Ti plate, which enabled the electro-generation of atomic hydrogen (H*) and the efficient electrocatalytic activation of H2O2 to hydroxyl radical (•OH). Cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves and electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra verified the existence of H* and •OH. The electroreduction-electrooxidation system achieved 94.7% of 20 mg L-1 2,4-DCNB removal with a relatively low H2O2 addition (5 mM). Moreover, the inhibition rate of Photobacterium phosphoreum in the effluent decreased from 95% to 52% after the sequencing electroreduction-electrooxidation processes. It was further revealed that the H* dominated the electroreduction process and triggered the electrooxidation process. Our work sheds light on the effective removal of electron-withdrawing groups substituted aromatic contaminants from water and wastewater.

Mechanism of quinone mediators modified polyurethane foam for enhanced nitrobenzene reduction and denitrification.

The nitrobenzene (NB) reduction and denitrification performance of the immobilized biofilm (I-BF) reactors based on 9,10-anthraquinone-2-sulfonyl chloride (ASC) modified polyurethane foam (PUF-ASC) carriers were investigated. Experiments demonstrated that the quinone mediators enhanced NB reduction and denitrification performance. The NB reduction rates increased by 1.46, while the NO3--N removal rates increased by 1.55 times in the PUF-0.1ASC system. The quinone mediators promote extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) secretion. Electrochemical tests indicated that quinone mediators enhanced the electron transfer of biofilm systems. NADH generation was accelerated and microbial electron transport system activity (ETSA) was promoted. The abundance of genera with electrochemical activity, NB degradation and denitrification ability (Pseudomonas sp., Diaphorobate sp., and Acinetobacter sp.) increased. Metabolic pathways relating to NO3--N and NB reduction were uploaded. In conclusion, electron acquisition by NO3--N and NB was facilitated, bacterial community structure and metabolic pathways were affected by the quinone mediators.

Photocatalytic performance of SiO2@TiO2 spheres in selective conversion of oxidation of benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde and reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline.

Selective photocatalytic oxidation of benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde and reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline reactions are investigated by using SiO2@TiO2 spheres produced in a simple route using chitosan as a template. The spheres are predominantly macroporous and, the XRD points out an amorphous crystallographic profile suggesting the uniform distribution of TiO2. Under low-power lighting for 4 hours, the conversions achieved was of the order of 49% and 99% for benzyl alcohol and nitrobenzene, respectively, with selectivity to benzaldehyde and aniline of 99% in both reactions. The study also follows the effects of the solvent and the presence of O2.

Research on the electrochemical treatment of nitrobenzene wastewater: The effects of process parameters and the mechanism of distinct degradation pathways.

Nitrobenzene is a typical organic pollutant of petroleum pollutant, which is a synthetic chemical not found naturally in the environment. Nitrobenzene in environment can cause toxic liver disease and respiratory failure in humans. Electrochemical technology provides an effective and efficient method for degrading nitrobenzene. This study, the effects of process parameter (e.g., electrolyte solution type, electrolyte concentration, current density and pH) and distinct reaction pathways for electrochemical treatment of nitrobenzene were investigated. As a result, available chlorine dominates the electrochemical oxidation process compared with hydroxyl radical, thus the electrolyte of NaCl is more suitable for the degradation of nitrobenzene than that of Na2SO4. The concentration and the existence form of available chlorine were mainly controlled by electrolyte concentration, current density and pH, which directly affect the removal of nitrobenzene. Cyclic voltammetry and mass spectrometric analyses suggested that electrochemical degradation of nitrobenzene included two important ways. Firstly, single oxidation: nitrobenzene → other forms of aromatic compounds→ NO-x + organic acids + mineralization products. Secondly, coordination of reduction and oxidation: nitrobenzene → aniline→ N2 + NO-x + organic acid + mineralization products. The results of this study will encourage us to further understand the electrochemical degradation mechanism of nitrobenzene and develop the efficient processes for nitrobenzene treatment.

Surfactant-enhanced reduction of soil-adsorbed nitrobenzene by carbon-coated nZVI: Enhanced desorption and mechanism.

The reduction process of pollutants by nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) is limited by mass transfer and its effective utilization, and previous studies have ignored the electron loss caused by its oxidative passivation. The carbon-coated structure can effectively inhibit the oxidation of nZVI, but the effectiveness of carbon-coated nZVI (Fe0@C) as a reducing agent in soil remediation is unclear. Therefore, in this study, the Fe0@C/surfactant system was used to remove soil-adsorbed nitrobenzene (NB) to simultaneously enhance the mass transfer process and effective utilization of nZVI. The results showed that the use of surfactants effectively promoted the desorption of NB adsorbed by the soil, and the desorption process was affected by factors such as the type and concentration of surfactants, water-soil ratio, and soil organic matter (SOM) content. The enhanced desorption of NB by the surfactant in the soil system promoted the effective contact between the composite and NB, thereby enhancing the reduction of NB by the composite. In addition, Fe0@C exhibited excellent performance for the reduction of soil-adsorbed NB compared with the conventional nZVI, and this advantage was more obvious in the potting soil system. However, the composite will be gradually passivated due to the alkaline environment during the reduction process, and this phenomenon was especially obvious in the campus soil system. When the pH value decreased from 9 to 3, the proportion of aniline (AN) generated in the campus soil system increased from 19.37 % to 69.29 %. In addition, in potting soil systems with high SOM content, the adsorption of soil particles to the composite and the high dissolved organic matter (DOM) content resulting from the high SOM content also negatively affected the reduction process. The conclusions of this study demonstrate the great potential of the Fe0@C/surfactant system for in-situ contaminated site remediation applications.

Electrochemical reduction of nitrobenzene via redox-mediated chronoamperometry.

Anilines are important feedstocks for pharmaceuticals, dyes, and other materials, but traditional approaches to their syntheses usually lack selectivity and environmental sustainability. Here, we describe the selective reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline under mild conditions, using water as the ultimate source of the required protons and electrons. We describe the electrochemical cell assembly, and detail steps for electrochemical reduction followed by organic extraction and analysis of the extracts using NMR. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Stergiou and Symes (2022a).

Development of High-Efficiency, Magnetically Separable Palladium-Decorated Manganese-Ferrite Catalyst for Nitrobenzene Hydrogenation.

Aniline (AN) is one of the most important compounds in the chemical industry and is prepared by the catalytic hydrogenation of nitrobenzene (NB). The development of novel, multifunctional catalysts which are easily recoverable from the reaction mixture is, therefore, of paramount importance. Compared to conventional filtration, magnetic separation is favored because it is cheaper and more facile. For satisfying these requirements, we developed manganese ferrite (MnFe2O4)-supported, magnetically separable palladium catalysts with high catalytic activity in the hydrogenation of nitrobenzene to aniline. In addition to high NB conversion and AN yield, remarkable aniline selectivity (above 96 n/n%) was achieved. Surprisingly, the magnetic support alone also shows moderate catalytic activity even without noble metals, and thus, up to 94 n/n% nitrobenzene conversion, along with 47 n/n% aniline yield, are attainable. After adding palladium nanoparticles to the support, the combined catalytic activity of the two nanomaterials yielded a fast, efficient, and highly selective catalyst. During the test of the Pd/MnFe2O4 catalyst in NB hydrogenation, no by-products were detected, and consequently, above 96 n/n% aniline yield and 96 n/n% selectivity were achieved. The activity of the Pd/MnFe2O4 catalyst was not particularly sensitive to the hydrogenation temperature, and reuse tests indicate its applicability in at least four cycles without regeneration. The remarkable catalytic activity and other favorable properties can make our catalyst potentially applicable to both NB hydrogenation and other similar or slightly different reactions.

Effects of different modifiers on the sorption and structural properties of biochar derived from wheat stalk.

Nitrobenzene is a widespread contaminant in water. Biochar (BC) is a promising material for removing organic pollutants, but the adsorption capacity of pristine BC is low. Chemical modification is often used to improve the adsorption performance, but information on the sorption of nitrobenzene by modified BC is rare. In this study, BCs pyrolyzed at 300, 500, and 700 °C were modified by hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and nitric acid (HNO3), respectively. The properties, nitrobenzene sorption behaviors, and sorption mechanisms of different BCs were analyzed. The results showed that chemical modification decreased the sorption of nitrobenzene on BCs pyrolyzed at 300 °C, possibly due to the loss of the partition phase and the increase in polarity after modification. Regarding BCs pyrolyzed at 500 and 700 °C, the NaOH and HCl modifications significantly increased the sorption capacity by 19% and 60%, 18%, and 41%, respectively, possibly due to the increase in surface area, available pores, and aromaticity, while HNO3 modification decreased the sorption capacity by 41% and 31%. Two reasons were probably responsible for the decrease: one was the decrease in surface area after HNO3 modification due to the destruction of pore walls and the continuity of holes; the other was the strong repulsion between the nitro groups formed on the surface of BC and the nitro groups of nitrobenzene that drove nitrobenzene molecules away from the surface. A principal component-based comprehensive evaluation of the BC properties, which were significantly correlated with the sorption isotherm parameters, was used to evaluate the nitrobenzene sorption performance of the modified BC. Overall, BC pyrolyzed at 700 °C modified with NaOH or HCl were proposed as effective sorption materials for the removal of nitrobenzene in environment, which also provided a chemical modified method of biochar derived from agricultural waste.

Enhanced nitrobenzene removal in soil by biochar supported sulfidated nano zerovalent iron: Solubilization effect and mechanism.

Sulfidated nano zerovalent iron (S-nZVI) is reported to be effective in removal of aqueous organic contaminants. However, little is known about its potential use in reductive degradation of soil-sorbed contaminants. In this study, biochar (BC) supported S-nZVI (S-nZVI@BC) was successfully synthesized through sulfidation and carbon loading modification, which effectively combined the solubilization characteristics of BC and high reduction characteristics of S-nZVI. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis suggested that sulfur and iron were evenly distributed throughout BC matrix. The degradation of nitrobenzene (NB) in soil was achieved more efficiently with the as-synthesized S-nZVI@BC composites. Results indicated that S-nZVI@BC with S-nZVI/BC mass ratio of 3:1, dosage of 10 mg/g exhibited superior NB removal (98%) and aniline (AN) formation (90%) efficiency within 24 h without formation of other intermediates, higher than those of S-nZVI. Meanwhile, the surface FeSX layer enhanced the antioxidant capacity of S-nZVI@BC and participated in the reduction of NB. The soil-sorbed NB decreased from 14% to 1.4%, indicating that the addition of BC played an important role in solubilization of NB from soil. Solubilization-reduction was the dominant mechanism for NB removal. This research indicated that S-nZVI@BC held the potential to enhance in-situ remediation of NB-contaminated soil.

Synthesis, biological evaluation, and molecular docking of new series of antitumor and apoptosis inducers designed as VEGFR-2 inhibitors.

Based on quinazoline, quinoxaline, and nitrobenzene scaffolds and on pharmacophoric features of VEGFR-2 inhibitors, 17 novel compounds were designed and synthesised. VEGFR-2 IC50 values ranged from 60.00 to 123.85 nM for the new derivatives compared to 54.00 nM for sorafenib. Compounds 15a, 15b, and 15d showed IC50 from 17.39 to 47.10 µM against human cancer cell lines; hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2), prostate cancer (PC3), and breast cancer (MCF-7). Meanwhile, the first in terms of VEGFR-2 inhibition was compound 15d which came second with regard to antitumor assay with IC50 = 24.10, 40.90, and 33.40 µM against aforementioned cell lines, respectively. Furthermore, Compound 15d increased apoptosis rate of HepG2 from 1.20 to 12.46% as it significantly increased levels of Caspase-3, BAX, and P53 from 49.6274, 40.62, and 42.84 to 561.427, 395.04, and 415.027 pg/mL, respectively. Moreover, 15d showed IC50 of 253 and 381 nM against HER2 and FGFR, respectively.