ABSTRACT
We have identified a rare HIV-1 protease (PR) mutation, I47A, associated with a high level of resistance to the protease inhibitor lopinavir (LPV) and with hypersusceptibility to the protease inhibitor saquinavir (SQV). The I47A mutation was found in 99 of 112,198 clinical specimens genotyped after LPV became available in late 2000, but in none of 24,426 clinical samples genotyped from 1998 to October 2000. Phenotypic data obtained for five I47A mutants showed unexpected resistance to LPV (86- to >110-fold) and hypersusceptibility to SQV (0.1- to 0.7-fold). Molecular modeling and energy calculations for these mutants using our structural phenotyping methodology showed an increase in the binding energy of LPV by 1.9-3.1 kcal/mol with respect to the wild type complex, corresponding to a 20- to >100-fold decrease in binding affinity, consistent with the observed high levels of LPV resistance. In the WT PR-LPV complex, the Ile 47 side chain is positioned close to the phenoxyacetyl moiety of LPV and its van der Waals interactions contribute significantly to the ligand binding. These interactions are lost for the smaller Ala 47 residue. Calculated binding energy changes for SQV ranged from -0.4 to -1.2 kcal/mol. In the mutant I47A PR-SQV complexes, the PR flaps are packed more tightly around SQV than in the WT complex, resulting in the formation of additional hydrogen bonds that increase binding affinity of SQV consistent with phenotypic hypersusceptibility. The emergence of mutations at PR residue 47 strongly correlates with increasing prescriptions of LPV (Spearman correlation r(s) = 0.96, P < .0001).
Subject(s)
Drug Resistance, Viral/genetics , HIV Protease Inhibitors/pharmacology , HIV Protease/chemistry , HIV-1/enzymology , Mutation/genetics , Pyrimidinones/pharmacology , Genotype , HIV Protease/genetics , HIV Protease/metabolism , HIV Protease Inhibitors/chemistry , HIV-1/drug effects , HIV-1/genetics , Humans , Kinetics , Lopinavir , Models, Molecular , Molecular Structure , Phenotype , Protein Binding , Protein Conformation , Pyrimidinones/chemistry , Saquinavir/chemistry , Saquinavir/pharmacology , Saquinavir/therapeutic useABSTRACT
Mutations in HIV-1 drug targets lead to resistance and consequent therapeutic failure of antiretroviral drugs. Phenotypic resistance assays are time-consuming and costly, and genotypic rules-based interpretations may fail to predict the effects of multiple mutations. We have developed a computational procedure that rapidly evaluates changes in the binding energy of inhibitors to mutant HIV-1 PR variants. Models of WT complexes were produced from crystal structures. Mutant complexes were built by amino acid substitutions in the WT complexes with subsequent energy minimization of the ligand and PR binding site residues. Accuracy of the models was confirmed by comparison with available crystal structures and by prediction of known resistance-related mutations. PR variants from clinical isolates were modeled in complex with six FDA-approved PIs, and changes in the binding energy (DeltaE(bind)) of mutant versus WT complexes were correlated with the ratios of phenotypic 50% inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) values. The calculated DeltaE(bind) of five PIs showed significant correlations (R(2) = 0.7-0.8) with IC(50) ratios from the Virco Antivirogram assay, and the DeltaE(bind) of six PIs showed good correlation (R(2) = 0.76-0.85) with IC(50) ratios from the Virologic PhenoSense assay. DeltaE(bind) cutoffs corresponding to a four-fold increase in IC(50) were used to define the structure-based phenotype as susceptible, resistant, or equivocal. Blind predictions for 78 PR variants gave overall agreement of 92% (kappa = 0.756) and 86% (kappa = 0.666) with PhenoSense and Antivirogram phenotypes, respectively. The structural phenotyping predicted drug resistance of clinical HIV-1 PR variants with an accuracy approaching that of frequently used cell-based phenotypic assays.
Subject(s)
Anti-HIV Agents/pharmacology , Drug Resistance, Viral/genetics , HIV Protease Inhibitors/pharmacology , HIV Protease/chemistry , HIV Protease/metabolism , HIV-1/drug effects , HIV-1/enzymology , Algorithms , Anti-HIV Agents/chemistry , Anti-HIV Agents/metabolism , Drug Design , HIV Protease/genetics , HIV Protease Inhibitors/chemistry , HIV Protease Inhibitors/metabolism , HIV-1/genetics , Models, Molecular , Phenotype , Protein Conformation , Structure-Activity RelationshipABSTRACT
Der is an essential and widely conserved GTPase that assists assembly of a large ribosomal subunit in bacteria. Der associates specifically with the 50S subunit in a GTP-dependent manner and the cells depleted of Der accumulate the structurally unstable 50S subunit, which dissociates into an aberrant subunit at a lower Mg(2+) concentration. As Der is an essential and ubiquitous protein in bacteria, it may prove to be an ideal cellular target against which new antibiotics can be developed. In the present study, we describe our attempts to identify novel antibiotics specifically targeting Der GTPase. We performed the structure-based design of Der inhibitors using the X-ray crystal structure of Thermotoga maritima Der (TmDer). Virtual screening of commercially available chemical library retrieved 257 small molecules that potentially inhibit Der GTPase activity. These 257 chemicals were tested for their in vitro effects on TmDer GTPase and in vivo antibacterial activities. We identified three structurally diverse compounds, SBI-34462, -34566 and -34612, that are both biologically active against bacterial cells and putative enzymatic inhibitors of Der GTPase homologs. We also presented the possible interactions of each compound with the Der GTP-binding site to understand the mechanism of inhibition. Therefore, our lead compounds inhibiting Der GTPase provide scaffolds for the development of novel antibiotics against antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacteria.