The Effect of Antibiotic Exposure and Specimen Volume on the Detection of Bacterial Pathogens in Children With Pneumonia.

BACKGROUND.: Antibiotic exposure and specimen volume are known to affect pathogen detection by culture. Here we assess their effects on bacterial pathogen detection by both culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in children. METHODS.: PERCH (Pneumonia Etiology Research for Child Health) is a case-control study of pneumonia in children aged 1-59 months investigating pathogens in blood, nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal (NP/OP) swabs, and induced sputum by culture and PCR. Antibiotic exposure was ascertained by serum bioassay, and for cases, by a record of antibiotic treatment prior to specimen collection. Inoculated blood culture bottles were weighed to estimate volume. RESULTS.: Antibiotic exposure ranged by specimen type from 43.5% to 81.7% in 4223 cases and was detected in 2.3% of 4863 controls. Antibiotics were associated with a 45% reduction in blood culture yield and approximately 20% reduction in yield from induced sputum culture. Reduction in yield of Streptococcus pneumoniae from NP culture was approximately 30% in cases and approximately 32% in controls. Several bacteria had significant but marginal reductions (by 5%-7%) in detection by PCR in NP/OP swabs from both cases and controls, with the exception of S. pneumoniae in exposed controls, which was detected 25% less frequently compared to nonexposed controls. Bacterial detection in induced sputum by PCR decreased 7% for exposed compared to nonexposed cases. For every additional 1 mL of blood culture specimen collected, microbial yield increased 0.51% (95% confidence interval, 0.47%-0.54%), from 2% when volume was ≤1 mL to approximately 6% for ≥3 mL. CONCLUSIONS.: Antibiotic exposure and blood culture volume affect detection of bacterial pathogens in children with pneumonia and should be accounted for in studies of etiology and in clinical management.

Poverty within watershed and environmentally protected areas: the case of the indigenous community in Peninsular Malaysia.

"Indigenous people" have been acknowledged as among the poorest and most socio-economically and culturally marginalized all over the world. This paper explores the socio-economic status of the indigenous people and their poverty profile within watershed and environmentally protected areas in Peninsular Malaysia. The findings of the study indicate that the "indigenous community" is likely to be poor if they live in environmentally sensitive and unprotected areas as compared to families under the new resettlement scheme. Inadequate access to basic education and employment contributed significantly to their poor economic status. The findings further reveal that the indigenous community is facing difficulties in receiving access and support in terms of basic needs such as housing, education, economic livelihood, and other social infrastructure. Moreover, the regulatory structure for the management of watershed areas as well as the emphasis for commodity crops such as palm oil and natural rubber have indirectly contributed toward the poverty level of the indigenous people.

Exploring genotypic variability and interrelationships among growth, yield, and quality characteristics in diverse tomato genotypes.

Tomato is the most consumed vegetable crop worldwide, with excellent beneficial health properties and high content of vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, total antioxidants, and phenolic compounds. Hence, improving its genotypes is crucial to sustain its production and ensure food security, principally under the fast-growing worldwide population and abrupt global climate change. The present study aimed to explore the genotypic variability associated with specific characteristics in twenty-five diverse tomato genotypes. In addition, the relationships between growth, yield, and quality traits using both univariate (correlation coefficient, path analysis) and multivariate (principal component, principal coordinates, canonical variate) analysis methods were explored. The results indicated that the evaluated genotypes possessed highly significant variation. This is appropriate for future hybridization through tomato breeding programs. All evaluated genotypes demonstrated considerable potential to develop strong hybrid vigour for growth, yield, and quality characteristics. In particular, the genotypes LS009, LS011, and LS014 could be considered promising, high-yielding, and resistant to yellow leaf curl virus infestation (YLCV) disease parents for future breeding schemes. The number of fruits per plant, fruit diameter, and fruit weight proved strong positive relationships with fruit yield. Accordingly, these characteristics demonstrate their importance in improving fruit yield and could be exploited as indirect criteria for selecting high-yielding tomato genotypes through breeding programs.

The Meaning of "Hygiene" and Its Linked Practices in a Low-Income Urban Community in Bangladesh.

Improving hygiene practices is considered to be the single most cost-effective means of reducing the global health burden of infectious diseases. Hygiene promotion and disease prevention interventions often portray and promote "hygiene" from a biomedical perspective, which may not be optimally effective for achieving their goal of changing people's behaviors. This study aimed to educe the meaning of hygiene for the residents of a low-income community in Bangladesh and how that meaning shapes their personal hygiene practices. We conducted this study in the Tongi township in Dhaka, Bangladesh, from September 2014 to June 2016. The research team purposively selected 24 households. The team conducted day-long observations using the participant observation approach and in-depth interviews with specific members of the 24 households. The concept of "hygiene" had two separate meanings to the study participants: cleanliness and holiness. The participants reported that cleanliness was required to remove odors, grease, hot spices and dirt. The motivation for cleanliness was to feel fresh, avoid heavy feelings, feel light and feel comfortable. To maintain the holiness of the body, bathing and ablution needed to be performed following particular religious rules/rituals. The motivation of holiness was derived from their accountability to God. The participants also reported that the cleansing processes and methods for the body and the home for cleanliness reasons were also different from those for holiness reasons. The notion of "hygiene" was multidimensional for the residents of the low-income urban community in Bangladesh. Our study participants did not explicitly conceptualize a notion of hygiene that was based on the germ theory of diseases but rather a notion that was based on individual physical comfort and cultural belief systems. Future studies on the prevention of hygiene-related diseases should combine and link the biomedical aspect to religious and cultural rituals to promote improved hygiene practices.

Measuring Water Quantity Used for Personal and Domestic Hygiene and Determinants of Water Use in a Low-Income Urban Community.

There is a paucity of recent research on direct water quantity measurement for personal and domestic hygiene. We aimed to measure the water quantity used for personal and domestic hygiene and to explore the reasons and determinants for variation of water usage. We conducted this study from September 2014 to June 2016 in a low-income urban community in Dhaka. In 12 households, the team conducted a day-long bimonthly ethnographic observation for one year to measure the volume of water used per activity per person. They conducted 28 in-depth interviews to explore the reasons for changes of water usage. Participants used a median of 75 L (61-100) of water per capita per day (LCPD) and of this 75 LCPD they used a median of 39 LCPD (26-58) for personal hygiene. Women used less water than men. Individual and social norms, beliefs, and weather determinants determined personal hygiene. Water availability determined domestic hygiene (e.g., washing dishes, toilets and bathrooms). This study helps to elucidate a range of determinants of water usage of the participants from the participants' perspective. The quantity of water used for domestic and personal hygiene and its relationship to fecal-oral transmitted disease can be explored in future research.

Optimization of Commercial Microwave Assisted-Extraction Conditions for Recovery of Phenolics from Lemon-Scented Tee Tree (Leptospermum petersonii) and Comparison with Other Extraction Techniques.

The lemon-scented tea tree (LSTT) is an Australian native herb and is a rich source of essential oil and phenolics. The ETHOS X extraction system is known as a commercial microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) system for extracting bioactive compounds from plant materials. This study investigated the influence of soaking time, radiation time, microwave power, and sample to solvent ratio on the extraction efficiency of polyphenols and antioxidant properties from lemon-scented tea tree leaves and optimized the extraction conditions using response surface methodology (RSM). The effectiveness of ETHOS X was further compared with ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and shaking water bath (SWB) techniques. The results revealed that soaking time did not significantly affect the recovery of phenolics from the leaves (p > 0.05). Thus, soaking is not required for the ETHOS X extraction of polyphenols from LSTT leaves. RSM was successfully applied to explore the impact of ETHOS X extraction conditions and optimize the extraction conditions. Radiation time significantly affects the recovery yield of phenolics (p < 0.05) positively, whereas irradiation power and sample to solvent ratio adversely influenced the extraction yields of phenolics. The optimal ETHOS X extraction conditions were: radiation time of 60 min, irradiation power of 600 W, and sample to solvent ratio of 2 g/100 mL. Under these conditions, 119.21 ± 7.09 mg of phenolic, 85.31 ± 4.55 mg of flavonoids, and 137.51 ± 12.52 mg of proanthocyanidins can be extracted from a gram of dried LSTT leaves. In comparison with UAE and SWB, ETHOS X is not more effective for the extraction of phenolics than UAE and SWB. However, this technique can save half of the solvent volume compared to UAE and SWB techniques.

Chemical composition and in vitro antioxidant properties of water-soluble extracts obtained from Bangladesh vegetables.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the nutritional value and antioxidant properties of aqueous extracts of some Bangladesh vegetables using fruits of ash gourd, bitter gourd, brinjal, okra, ridge gourd, snake gourd, and leaves of Indian spinach, kangkong, and stem amaranth. Proximate composition showed that the dried extracts were composed mainly of crude protein (14.6%-46.7%) and non-fibre carbohydrates (26.4%-53.5%). With the exception of stem amaranth, all the extracts had >40% DPPH radical scavenging ability at 0.5 mg/ml. In contrast metal chelation was lower, except in Indian spinach with ~46%. The ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) was highest for the kangkong (10.9 mM Fe3+ reduced), which is similar to the 9.9 mM for butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). All the extracts suppressed linoleic acid oxidation better than BHT within the first 5 days of the incubation period. We conclude that the Indian spinach, kangkong, and okra could be considered as the most promising sources of antioxidant compounds. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Vegetables are commonly consumed as part of a regular diet but the high water and fiber contents usually mean that large quantities are required to provide long-term health benefits. Therefore, in this work, aqueous extracts of nine Bangladesh vegetables were prepared to provide a more concentrated form of nutrients and bioactive compounds. The extracts had strong nutritional value based on the high contents of crude protein, potassium, iron, and non-fibre carbohydrates. The high content of polyphenolic compounds in the extracts can also provide health benefits, which was demonstrated through strong free radical scavenging, metal chelation, ferric iron reduction, and inhibition of linoleic acid oxidation. These vegetable extracts have the potential to be used as sources of bioactive compounds to prevent or treat non-communicable diseases that are associated with high oxidative stress.

Comparison of conventional extraction technique with ultrasound assisted extraction on recovery of phenolic compounds from lemon scented tea tree (Leptospermum petersonii) leaves.

Leptospermum petersonii is a native Australian medicinal and aromatic plant. This study was designed to evaluate the influence of solvents and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) parameters including time, temperature, and sonication power on the yield of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity from lemon scented tea tree leaves. Extraction efficiency of the optimal UAE conditions were compared with that of shaking water bath technique. The results show that extraction solvents significantly affect extraction yield of phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties, and 50% acetone in water was found to be the most suitable solvent. The UAE optimal conditions were 60 min, 50 °C and sonication power of 200 W. Under these optimal conditions the yields of total phenolics, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins were 98.91 ± 1.20 (mg GAE/g DW), 76.12 ± 0.79 (mg CE/g DW), 117.71 ± 2.18 (mg CE/g DW), respectively. Antioxidant properties from four assays including FRAP, CUPRAC, ABTS and DPPH were 581.29 ± 14.23, 5534.87 ± 19.56, 1636.18 ± 4.11, and 889.29 ± 20.68 (mM TE/g DW) respectively. The UAE extraction technique was found to be more efficient in extraction of total phenolics and antioxidant capacity in comparison with conventional shaking water bath extraction. This study also observed a strong correlation between phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacities. All three phenolic compound groups (TPC, TFC, and Pro.A) were contributed to both free radical scavenging and ion reducing properties in the lemon scented tea tree leaves extract. However, the order of the phenolic groups was TPC > Pro.A > TFC for antioxidant properties.

Inhibitory Activities of Polyphenolic Extracts of Bangladeshi Vegetables against α-Amylase, α-Glucosidase, Pancreatic Lipase, Renin, and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme.

The aim of the study was to determine the in vitro enzyme inhibition activities of aqueous polyphenolic extracts of nine popular Bangladeshi vegetables, namely ash gourd, bitter gourd, brinjal, Indian spinach, kangkong, okra, ridge gourd, snake gourd, and stem amaranth. Polyphenolic glycosides were the major compounds present in the extracts. Inhibition of α-amylase (up to 100% at 1 mg/mL) was stronger than α-glucosidase inhibition (up to 70.78% at 10 mg/mL). The Indian spinach extract was the strongest inhibitor of pancreatic lipase activity (IC50 = 276.77 µg/mL), which was significantly better than that of orlistat (381.16 µg/mL), a drug. Ash gourd (76.51%), brinjal (72.48%), and snake gourd (66.82%) extracts were the most effective inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), an enzyme whose excessive activities have been associated with hypertension. Brinjal also had a significantly higher renin-inhibitory activity than the other vegetable extracts. We conclude that the vegetable extracts may have the ability to reduce enzyme activities that have been associated with hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension.

Touchscreen-based location discrimination and paired associate learning tasks detect cognitive impairment at an early stage in an App knock-in mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline with accumulation of amyloid beta (Aß) and neurofibrillary tangles that usually begins 15-30 years before clinical diagnosis. Rodent models that recapitulate aggressive Aß and/or the pathology of neurofibrillary tangles are essential for AD research. Accordingly, non-invasive early detection systems in these animal models are required to evaluate the phenotypic changes, elucidate the mechanism of disease progression, and facilitate development of novel therapeutic approaches. Although many behavioral tests efficiently reveal cognitive impairments at the later stage of the disease in AD models, it has been challenging to detect such impairments at the early stage. To address this issue, we subjected 4-6-month-old male AppNL-G-F/NL-G-F knock-in (App-KI) mice to touchscreen-based location discrimination (LD), different object-location paired-associate learning (dPAL), and reversal learning tests, and compared the results with those of the classical Morris water maze test. These tests are mainly dependent on the brain regions prone to Aß accumulation at the earliest stages of the disease. At 4-6 months, considered to represent the early stage of disease when mice exhibit initial deposition of Aß and slight gliosis, the classical Morris water maze test revealed no difference between groups, whereas touchscreen-based LD and dPAL tasks revealed significant impairments in task performance. Our report is the first to confirm that a systematic touchscreen-based behavioral test battery can sensitively detect the early stage of cognitive decline in an AD-linked App-KI mouse model. This system could be applied in future translational research.

Effects of different drying methods on extractable phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties from lemon myrtle dried leaves.

Lemon myrtle (Backhousia citriodora) is one of the most commercially grown native herbs in Australia. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different drying methods on phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of lemon myrtle leaves to identify the most suitable drying conditions. The drying methods include hot air drying, vacuum drying, microwave drying, sun drying, shade drying and freeze drying. The results showed that drying conditions significantly (p < 0.05) affected the retention of total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoids (TFC), proanthocyanidins, gallic acid, hesperetin, and antioxidant properties of lemon myrtle leaves. The optimal conditions for hot air drying and vacuum drying are 90 °C for 75 min and 90 °C for 120 min, respectively; whereas optimal drying conditions for microwave drying are 960 W for 7 min, and the time required for sun drying and shade drying are 2 days and 12 days, respectively. The freeze dried leaves contained the highest level of TPC, TFC, proanthocyanidins, gallic acid and hesperetin (74.11 ± 2.87 mg GAE/g dw, 87.15 ± 2.70 mg CE/g dw, 123.49 ± 6.12 mg CE/g dw, 53.77 ± 0.22 mg/g dw and 38.99 ± 0.26 mg/g dw, respectively). The freeze dried leaves also contained higher antioxidant capacity as compared to other samples. No significant difference in phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity was observed between tested other drying methods. Therefore, any of these methods can be selected for dehydration of lemon myrtle leaves for industrial purposes. However, microwave drying can be selected for drying of lemon myrtle leaves for an industrial scale as it was the most time and/or energy efficient technique.

Optimization of process parameters for improved production of biomass protein from Aspergillus niger using banana peel as a substrate.

This study was aimed to optimize the process variables for improved production of biomass protein using Aspergillus niger from banana fruit peel by the use of response surface methodology. A five-level-four factors central composite rotatable design was applied to elucidate the influence of process variables viz. temperature (20-40 °C), pH (4-8), substrate concentration (5-25%), and fermentation period (1-5 days) on biomass and protein content. The second-order polynomial models were established, which effectively explicated the variation in experimental data and significantly epitomized the appreciable correlation between independent variables and responses. After numerical optimization, the predicted optimum conditions (temperature of 31.02 °C, pH of 6.19, substrate concentration of 19.92%, and the fermentation period of 4 days) were obtained with biomass of 24.69 g/L and protein of 61.23%, which were verified through confirmatory experiments.

Cell type-specific activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase in D1 receptor-expressing neurons of the nucleus accumbens potentiates stimulus-reward learning in mice.

Medium spiny neurons (MSN) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) are a fundamental component of various aspects of motivated behavior. Although mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling plays a crucial role in several types of learning, the cell type-specific role of MAPK pathway in stimulus-reward learning and motivation remains unclear. We herein investigated the role of MAPK in accumbal MSNs in reward-associated learning and memory. During the acquisition of Pavlovian conditioning, the number of phosphorylated MAPK1/3-positive cells was increased significantly and exclusively in the NAc core by 7-days of extensive training. MAPK signaling in the respective D1R- and D2R-MSNs was manipulated by transfecting an adeno-associated virus (AAV) plasmid into the NAc of Drd1a-Cre and Drd2-Cre transgenic mice. Potentiation of MAPK signaling shifted the learning curve of Pavlovian conditioning to the left only in Drd1a-Cre mice, whereas such manipulation in D2R-MSNs had negligible effects. In contrast, MAPK manipulation in D2R-MSNs of the NAc core significantly increased motivation for food rewards as found in Drd1a-Cre mice. These results suggest that MAPK signaling in the D1R-MSNs of NAc core plays an important role in stimulus-reward learning, while MAPK signaling in both D1R- and D2R-MSNs is involved in motivation for natural rewards.