Environmental Risks of Medium-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins (MCCPs): A Review.

Chlorinated paraffins are industrial chemicals that can be subdivided into short-chain (SCCP), medium-chain (MCCP), and long-chain (LCCP) chlorinated paraffins. The global production volumes of MCCPs are nowadays suspected to be much higher than those of S- and LCCPs, and the few available studies on the environmental occurrence of chlorinated paraffins report often higher MCCP concentrations than S- or LCCP concentrations in the environment. The present review focuses, therefore, on MCCPs specifically and provides a literature overview and a data analysis of the production volumes, PBT properties (persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity), and the worldwide measured concentrations of MCCP in environmental samples, biota, and humans. Furthermore, we include our own measurements of technical CP formulations from China, the major global producing country, to estimate the global production amounts of MCCPs. The key findings from this review are that (1) MCCPs are toxic to the aquatic environment, and the available data suggest that they are also persistent; (2) available time trends for MCCPs in soil, biota, and most of the sediment cores show increasing time trends over the last years to decades; and (3) MCCP concentrations in sediment close to local sources exceed toxicity thresholds (i.e., the PNEC). Our study shows that overall, MCCPs are of growing concern, and regulatory actions should be considered seriously.

Deconvolution of Mass Spectral Interferences of Chlorinated Alkanes and Their Thermal Degradation Products: Chlorinated Alkenes.

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are high production volume chemicals and ubiquitous environmental contaminants. CPs are produced and used as complex mixtures of polychlorinated n-alkanes containing thousands of isomers, leading to demanding analytical challenges. Due to their high degree of chlorination, CPs have highly complex isotopic mass patterns that often overlap, even when applying high resolution mass spectrometry. This is further complicated in the presence of degradation products such as chlorinated alkenes (CP-enes). CP-enes are formed by dehydrochlorination of CPs and are expected thermal degradation products in some applications of CPs, for example, as metal working fluids. A mathematical method is presented that allows deconvolution of the strongly interfered measured isotope clusters into linear combinations of isotope clusters of CPs and CP-enes. The analytical method applied was direct liquid injection into an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization source, followed by quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (APCI-qTOF-MS), operated in full scan negative ion mode. The mathematical deconvolution method was successfully applied to a thermally aged polychlorinated tridecane formulation (Cl5-Cl9). Deconvolution of mass patterns allowed quantifying fractions of interfering CPs and CP-enes. After exposure to 220 °C for 2, 4, 8, and 24 h, fractions of CP-enes within the respective interfering clusters increased from 0-3% at 0 h up to 37-44% after 24 h. It was shown that thermolysis of CPs follows first-order kinetics. The presented deconvolution method allows CP degradation studies with mass resolution lower than 20000 and is therefore a good alternative when higher resolution is not available.

Inversion Approach to Validate Mercury Emissions Based on Background Air Monitoring at the High Altitude Research Station Jungfraujoch (3580 m).

The reduction of emissions of mercury is a declared aim of the Minamata Convention, a UN treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects of mercury. To assess the effectiveness of the convention in the future, better constraints about the current mercury emissions is a premise. In our study, we applied a top-down approach to quantify mercury emissions on the basis of atmospheric mercury measurements conducted at the remote high altitude monitoring station Jungfraujoch, Switzerland. We established the source-receptor relationships and by the means of atmospheric inversion we were able to quantify spatially resolved European emissions of 89 ± 14 t/a for elemental mercury. Our European emission estimate is 17% higher than the bottom-up emission inventory, which is within stated uncertainties. However, some regions with unexpectedly high emissions were identified. Stationary combustion, in particular in coal-fired power plants, is found to be the main responsible sector for increased emission estimates. Our top-down approach, based on measurements, provides an independent constraint on mercury emissions, helps to improve and refine reported emission inventories, and can serve for continued assessment of future changes in emissions independent from bottom-up inventories.

Dynamic Transgenerational Fate of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Dioxins/Furans in Lactating Cows and Their Offspring.

We report on two farms in Switzerland heavily contaminated by polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins (PCDD/Fs), occurring in the first case from diffuse sources and in the second case from PCB-containing wall paint. Extensive measurements of PCBs and PCDD/Fs on site (soil, forage, and paint) and in cattle (blood, fat, and milk) allowed validation of our novel dynamic toxicokinetic model, which includes the transfer of contaminants from the mother cows to their suckling calf and the uptake of soil by grazing cattle. We show that for calves, the mother milk is the main uptake route of contaminants. For both cows and calves, ingestion of contaminated soil, although often overlooked, is an appreciable uptake path. The remediation of the contaminated stable lead to a 2-3 fold reduction of the PCB levels in animals within one year. The transfer of animals to an uncontaminated mountain site during summer proved to be an effective decontamination procedure with up to 50% reduction of the levels within three months. Our study calls for a rapid removal of PCB-containing materials in animal husbandry farms and shows that the diffuse contamination of soils will remain a source for PCBs and PCDD/Fs in our food chain for decades to come.

Quantifying Short-Chain Chlorinated Paraffin Congener Groups.

Accurate quantification of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) poses an exceptional challenge to analytical chemists. SCCPs are complex mixtures of chlorinated alkanes with variable chain length and chlorination level; congeners with a fixed chain length (n) and number of chlorines (m) are referred to as a "congener group" CnClm. Recently, we resolved individual CnClm by mathematically deconvolving soft ionization high-resolution mass spectra of SCCP mixtures. Here we extend the method to quantifying CnClm by introducing CnClm specific response factors (RFs) that are calculated from 17 SCCP chain-length standards with a single carbon chain length and variable chlorination level. The signal pattern of each standard is measured on APCI-QTOF-MS. RFs of each CnClm are obtained by pairwise optimization of the normal distribution's fit to the signal patterns of the 17 chain-length standards. The method was verified by quantifying SCCP technical mixtures and spiked environmental samples with accuracies of 82-123% and 76-109%, respectively. The absolute differences between calculated and manufacturer-reported chlorination degrees were -0.9 to 1.0%Cl for SCCP mixtures of 49-71%Cl. The quantification method has been replicated with ECNI magnetic sector MS and ECNI-Q-Orbitrap-MS. CnClm concentrations determined with the three instruments were highly correlated (R2 > 0.90) with each other.

Understanding and Predicting the Fate of Semivolatile Organic Pesticides in a Glacier-Fed Lake Using a Multimedia Chemical Fate Model.

Melting glaciers release previously ice-entrapped chemicals to the surrounding environment. As glacier melting accelerates under future climate warming, chemical release may also increase. This study investigated the behavior of semivolatile pesticides over the course of one year and predicted their behavior under two future climate change scenarios. Pesticides were quantified in air, lake water, glacial meltwater, and streamwater in the catchment of Lake Brewster, an alpine glacier-fed lake located in the Southern Alps of New Zealand. Two historic-use pesticides (endosulfan I and hexachlorobenzene) and three current-use pesticides (dacthal, triallate, and chlorpyrifos) were frequently found in both air and water samples from the catchment. Regression analysis indicated that the pesticide concentrations in glacial meltwater and lake water were strongly correlated. A multimedia environmental fate model was developed for these five chemicals in Brewster Lake. Modeling results indicated that seasonal lake ice cover melt, and varying contributions of input from glacial melt and streamwater, created pulses in pesticide concentrations in lake water. Under future climate scenarios, the concentration pulse was altered and glacial melt made a greater contribution (as mass flux) to pesticide input in the lake water.

Medium-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins (CPs) Dominate in Australian Sewage Sludge.

To simultaneously quantify and profile the complex mixture of short-, median-, and long-chain CPs (SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs) in Australian sewage sludge, we applied and further validated a recently developed novel instrumental technique, using quadrupole time-of-flight high resolution mass spectrometry running in the negative atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mode (APCI-qTOF-HRMS). Without using an analytical column the cleaned extracts were directly injected into the qTOF-HRMS followed by quantification of the CPs by a mathematical algorithm. The recoveries of the four SCCP, MCCP and LCCP-spiked sewage sludge samples ranged from 86 to 123%. This APCI-qTOF-HRMS method is a fast and promising technique for routinely measuring SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs in sewage sludge. Australian sewage sludge was dominated by MCCPs with concentrations ranging from 542 to 3645 ng/g dry weight (dw). Lower SCCPs concentrations (<57-1421 ng/g dw) were detected in the Australian sewage sludge, which were comparable with the LCCPs concentrations (116-960 ng/g dw). This is the first time that CPs were reported in Australian sewage sludge. The results of this study gives a first impression on the distribution of the SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs in Australia wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs).

Occurrence and concentrations of isothiazolinones in detergents and cosmetics in Switzerland.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, the frequency of contact allergy to isothiazolinones has increased alarmingly in Europe, but only limited data are available on concentrations of isothiazolinones in consumer products. OBJECTIVES: To examine the current frequency of isothiazolinones [methylisothiazolinone (MI), methylchloroisothiazolinone (MCI), benzisothiazolinone (BIT), and octylisothiazolinone (OIT)] in a wide array of detergents and cosmetics relevant for the Swiss population. METHODS: By means of a market survey, the occurrence of isothiazolinones was investigated in 1948 consumer products. Of these, 88 products were analysed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry after ultrasonic extraction. RESULTS: Only 7.6% of all cosmetics contained isothiazolinones, but the prevalence in detergents was much higher (42.9%). The measured concentration ranges in detergents were 4.3­10, 3.5­279, 3.8­186 and 7.9 ppm (one product only) for MCI, MI, BIT, and OIT, respectively [corrected]. For cosmetics, these were 1.3-133 and 4.8 ppm (one product only) for MI and MCI, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our study has shown that high concentrations of isothiazolinones (including MI) can be found in a large variety of products, in particular in detergents. Therefore, the safe use of these preservatives should be re-evaluated by including detergents in the exposure assessment.

Deconvolution of Soft Ionization Mass Spectra of Chlorinated Paraffins To Resolve Congener Groups.

We describe and illustrate a three-step data-processing approach that enables individual congener groups of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) to be resolved in mass spectra obtained from either of two soft ionization methods: electron capture negative ionization mass spectrometry (ECNI-MS) or atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry (APCI-MS). In the first step, general fragmentation pathways of CPs are deduced from analysis of mass spectra of individual CP congeners. In the second step, all possible fragment ions in the general fragmentation pathways of CPs with 10 to 20 carbon atoms are enumerated and compared to mass spectra of CP mixture standards, and a deconvolution algorithm is applied to identify fragment ions that are actually observed. In the third step, isotope permutations of the observed fragment ions are calculated and used to identify isobaric overlaps, so that mass intensities of individual CP congener groups can be deconvolved from the unresolved isobaric ion signal intensities in mass spectra. For a specific instrument, the three steps only need to be done once to enable deconvolution of CPs in unknown samples. This approach enables congener group-level resolution of CP mixtures in environmental samples, and it opens up the possibility for quantification of congener groups.

Spatial Distribution of Atmospheric PCBs in Zurich, Switzerland: Do Joint Sealants Still Matter?

Passive air samplers were deployed at 23 sites across the city of Zurich, Switzerland to investigate the spatial distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in air. Concentrations of the six indicator PCBs (iPCBs) in air ranged from 54 to 3160 pg·m(-3) in the two sampling campaigns (spring 2011 and spring 2013). Measurements at two sampling sites were significantly higher than the median in both years, because of the proximity to primary PCB sources. Concentrations at most other stations were in a narrow range, suggesting that atmospheric PCB concentrations in Zurich are mainly caused by a high number of rather small sources. A correlation of iPCB concentrations in air with the number of buildings constructed between 1955 and 1975 in the surrounding areas of the sampling sites was observed. This demonstrates that PCB-containing building materials, such as joint sealants, influence PCB levels in urban air. Additionally, atmospheric iPCB concentrations were measured in the surrounding of a housing complex with PCB-contaminated joint sealants. Using a Gaussian diffusion model, annual iPCB emissions of 110-190 g were calculated for this housing complex. This appreciable amount released by a single building points out that more efforts are required to further eliminate remaining PCB stocks.

A Temperate Alpine Glacier as a Reservoir of Polychlorinated Biphenyls: Model Results of Incorporation, Transport, and Release.

In previous studies, the incorporation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) has been quantified in the accumulation areas of Alpine glaciers. Here, we introduce a model framework that quantifies mass fluxes of PCBs in glaciers and apply it to the Silvretta glacier (Switzerland). The models include PCB incorporation into the entire surface of the glacier, downhill transport with the flow of the glacier ice, and chemical fate in the glacial lake. The models are run for the years 1900-2100 and validated by comparing modeled and measured PCB concentrations in an ice core, a lake sediment core, and the glacial streamwater. The incorporation and release fluxes, as well as the storage of PCBs in the glacier increase until the 1980s and decrease thereafter. After a temporary increase in the 2000s, the future PCB release and the PCB concentrations in the glacial stream are estimated to be small but persistent throughout the 21st century. This study quantifies all relevant PCB fluxes in and from a temperate Alpine glacier over two centuries, and concludes that Alpine glaciers are a small secondary source of PCBs, but that the aftermath of environmental pollution by persistent and toxic chemicals can endure for decades.

Fast quantification of chlorinated paraffins in environmental samples by direct injection high-resolution mass spectrometry with pattern deconvolution.

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are high production volume chemicals, but data about their environmental fate are scarce. CP mixtures composed of thousands of isomers represent a major challenge for quantification at low levels in environmental samples. Here, we present a novel analytical method for analysis of short-chain, medium-chain, and long-chain CPs in a single injection, that also yields information about congener group pattern. Our detection method is based on direct injection into an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization source operated in negative ion mode under chlorine-enhanced conditions, followed by quadrupole time-of-flight high-resolution mass spectrometry (APCI-qTOF-HRMS) operated in full-scan mode. A mathematical algorithm is applied to deconvolute the CP patterns in the analyzed samples into a linear combination of patterns of technical CP mixtures and to quantify CPs using technical mixtures as external calibration standards. For CP mixtures with known composition, the new method provided concentrations that were within a factor of 1.2 of the target value. Accuracies for CPs spiked to sediment and fish extracts were between 91% and 123%. Concentrations determined in unspiked field samples were within a factor of 5 for short-chain CPs and a factor of 16 for medium-chain CPs of results obtained with an independent method based on gas chromatography/electron capture negative ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC/ECNI-HRMS). The presented APCI-qTOF-HRMS pattern deconvolution method is an interesting alternative for CP analysis in environmental samples. It is particularly sensitive for medium- and long-chain CPs and has the advantage of being extremely fast (instrumental analysis time, less than 1 min).

Polychlorinated Biphenyls in a Temperate Alpine Glacier: 1. Effect of Percolating Meltwater on their Distribution in Glacier Ice.

In Alpine regions, glaciers act as environmental archives and can accumulate significant amounts of atmospherically derived pollutants. Due to the current climate-warming-induced accelerated melting, these pollutants are being released at correspondingly higher rates. To examine the effect of melting on the redistribution of legacy pollutants in Alpine glaciers, we analyzed polychlorinated biphenyls in an ice core from the temperate Silvretta glacier, located in eastern Switzerland. This glacier is affected by surface melting in summer. As a result, liquid water percolates down and particles are enriched in the current annual surface layer. Dating the ice core was a challenge because meltwater percolation also affects the traditionally used parameters. Instead, we counted annual layers of particulate black carbon in the ice core, adding the years with negative glacier mass balance, that is, years with melting and subsequent loss of the entire annual snow accumulation. The analyzed samples cover the time period 1930-2011. The concentration of indicator PCBs (iPCBs) in the Silvretta ice core follows the emission history, peaking in the 1970s (2.5 ng/L). High PCB values in the 1990s and 1930s are attributed to meltwater-induced relocation within the glacier. The total iPCB load at the Silvretta ice core site is 5 ng/cm(2). A significant amount of the total PCB burden in the Silvretta glacier has been released to the environment.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls in a Temperate Alpine Glacier: 2. Model Results of Chemical Fate Processes.

We present results from a chemical fate model quantifying incorporation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) into the Silvretta glacier, a temperate Alpine glacier located in Switzerland. Temperate glaciers, in contrast to cold glaciers, are glaciers where melt processes are prevalent. Incorporation of PCBs into cold glaciers has been quantified in previous studies. However, the fate of PCBs in temperate glaciers has never been investigated. In the model, we include melt processes, inducing elution of water-soluble substances and, conversely, enrichment of particles and particle-bound chemicals. The model is validated by comparing modeled and measured PCB concentrations in an ice core collected in the Silvretta accumulation area. We quantify PCB incorporation between 1900 and 2010, and discuss the fate of six PCB congeners. PCB concentrations in the ice core peak in the period of high PCB emissions, as well as in years with strong melt. While for lower-chlorinated PCB congeners revolatilization is important, for higher-chlorinated congeners, the main processes are storage in glacier ice and removal by particle runoff. This study gives insight into PCB fate and dynamics and reveals the effect of snow accumulation and melt processes on the fate of semivolatile organic chemicals in a temperate Alpine glacier.

Short-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins in Zurich, Switzerland--Atmospheric Concentrations and Emissions.

Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are of concern due to their potential for adverse health effects, bioaccumulation, persistence, and long-range transport. Data on concentrations of SCCPs in urban areas and underlying emissions are still scarce. In this study, we investigated the levels and spatial distribution of SCCPs in air, based on two separate, spatially resolved sampling campaigns in the city of Zurich, Switzerland. SCCP concentrations in air ranged from 1.8 to 17 ng·m(-3) (spring 2011) and 1.1 to 42 ng·m(-3) (spring 2013) with medians of 4.3 and 2.7 ng·m(-3), respectively. Both data sets show that atmospheric SCCP levels in Zurich can vary substantially and may be influenced by a number of localized sources within this urban area. Additionally, continuous measurements of atmospheric concentrations performed at one representative sampling site in the city center from 2011 to 2013 showed strong seasonal variations with high SCCP concentrations in summer and lower levels in winter. A long-term dynamic multimedia environmental fate model was parametrized to simulate the seasonal trends of SCCP concentrations in air and to back-calculate urban emissions. Resulting annual SCCP emissions in the city of Zurich accounted for 218-321 kg, which indicates that large SCCP stocks are present in urban areas of industrialized countries.

Emissions of polychlorinated biphenyls in Switzerland: a combination of long-term measurements and modeling.

Ambient air concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in Zurich, Switzerland, are reported for the years 2011-2013. These measurements reveal a distinct seasonal trend with PCB concentrations in air during the summer that were three to five times higher than in the winter. We used a long-term dynamic multimedia model to analyze the seasonal trend and to back-calculate urban emissions of PCBs. In contrast to previous short-term studies that considered time periods of several days to months to extrapolate annual emissions, the use of long-term field data and the corresponding model reduces the uncertainty in these extrapolations. Comparison with measured PCB concentrations in air shows that our model is able to reproduce seasonal trends of the six indicator PCBs (iPCBs). The good agreement of the model results with measurements over a time period of three years provides confidence in model outputs and allows us to estimate the total annual PCB emissions of Zurich (86 µg capita(-1) d(-1)). The resulting summer emissions are nine times higher than emissions during winter. Interestingly, this factor corresponds to the expected increase in PCB volatilization due to the effect of temperature on vapor pressure. This finding implies that PCBs in Zurich are probably released mainly by volatilization from sources that are directly exposed to ambient air temperature (i.e., outdoor sources). The derived emissions are in accordance with previous studies performed at the same location and are also in agreement with an existing emission inventory.

Polychlorinated biphenyls in glaciers. 1. Deposition history from an Alpine ice core.

We present a highly time-resolved historical record of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from an Alpine ice core (Fiescherhorn glacier, Switzerland). Introduced in the 1940s, PCBs were widely used industrial chemicals. Because of their persistence they are still found in the environment, long after their production phase-out. The Fiescherhorn ice core record covers the entire time period of industrial use of PCBs, that is, 1940-2002. The total concentration of six PCBs varies from 0.5 to 5 ng L(-1) and reveals a temporal trend, with an 8-fold increase from the early 1940s to the peak value in the 1970s. The level in 2002 is comparable to the concentration in the 1940s, when PCBs were introduced into the market. The time trend of PCBs associated with the particulate fraction closely follows the trend found in the dissolved fraction, but the absolute values are a factor of 10 lower. In addition to changing emissions, fluctuations in the PCB record were explained by variabilty in convective transport and postdepositional processes such as surface melting. Concentrations of PCBs are in agreement with data from seasonal snow samples in the Alps, but are a factor of 100 higher than concentrations measured in the Arctic. Contrasting time trends and congener patterns between the Alpine and Arctic region indicate the importance of atmospheric transport and postdepositional effects.

Polychlorinated biphenyls in glaciers. 2. Model results of deposition and incorporation processes.

In previous work, Alpine glaciers have been identified as a secondary source of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). However, detailed understanding of the processes organic chemicals undergo in a glacial system was missing. Here, we present results from a chemical fate model describing deposition and incorporation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) into an Alpine glacier (Fiescherhorn, Switzerland) and an Arctic glacier (Lomonosovfonna, Norway). To understand PCB fate and dynamics, we investigate the interaction of deposition, sorption to ice and particles in the atmosphere and within the glacier, revolatilization, diffusion and degradation, and discuss the effects of these processes on the fate of individual PCB congeners. The model is able to reproduce measured absolute concentrations in the two glaciers for most PCB congeners. While the model generally predicts concentration profiles peaking in the 1970s, in the measurements, this behavior can only be seen for higher-chlorinated PCB congeners on Fiescherhorn glacier. We suspect seasonal melt processes are disturbing the concentration profiles of the lower-chlorinated PCB congeners. While a lower-chlorinated PCB congener is mainly deposited by dry deposition and almost completely revolatilized after deposition, a higher-chlorinated PCB congener is predominantly transferred to the glacier surface by wet deposition and then is incorporated into the glacier ice. The incorporated amounts of PCBs are higher on the Alpine glacier than on the Arctic glacier due to the higher precipitation rate and aerosol particle concentration on the former. Future studies should include the effects of seasonal melt processes, calculate the quantities of PCBs incorporated into the entire glacier surface, and estimate the quantity of chemicals released from glaciers to determine the importance of glaciers as a secondary source of organic chemicals to remote aquatic ecosystems.

Emissions of polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, and polychlorinated dibenzofurans during 2010 and 2011 in Zurich, Switzerland.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are ubiquitous contaminants of environmental and human health relevance, but their emissions into the environment are still poorly known. In this study, concentrations of selected POPs were measured in ambient air in Zurich, Switzerland, and interpreted with a multimedia mass balance model. The aim of the combination of measurements and modeling was to back-calculate atmospheric emission rates of POPs. Measurements were performed in summer 2010 and winter 2011 and target analytes included polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). Estimated emissions were higher in summer than in winter. Emission estimates for Zurich can be extrapolated to annual averages for Switzerland of 312 kg·a(-1) (39 mg·capita(-1)·a(-1)), 53 kg·a(-1) (7 mg·capita(-1)·a(-1)), and 3 kg·a(-1) (0.4 mg·capita(-1)·a(-1), 94 g WHO98-TEQ·a(-1), 65 g I-TEQ·a(-1)) for the six indicator PCBs (iPCBs), the twelve coplanar dioxin-like PCBs (dlPCBs), and the 17 2,3,7,8-chlorosubstituted PCDD/Fs, respectively. The emission rates of iPCBs are in agreement with existing emission inventories, whereas for PCDD/Fs the emissions are five times higher than the estimates from the Swiss national emission inventory. Emissions of dlPCBs in Switzerland are presented here for the first time. Our study also provides the first seasonally resolved emission rates of POPs, which were determined with our combined measurement and modeling approach. These findings highlight the relevance of ongoing sources of POPs, even decades after regulations aiming to reduce or eliminate sources were established.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Cocaine and its Hydroxy Metabolites in Seized Cocaine and a Large Cohort of Hair Samples.

As cocaine is not only incorporated into hair via blood following ingestion but also by external contamination, hair samples are commonly tested for cocaine metabolites to prove ingestion. However, cocaine metabolites can also be present as degradation products in typical street cocaine samples. The present study investigates minor hydroxycocaine metabolites para- and meta-hydroxycocaine together with para- and meta-hydroxybenzoylecgonine in seized cocaine (n=200) and hair samples from routine casework (n=2,389). Analytical results of hair samples were interpreted using an established decision model for the differentiation between actual use and external contamination using metabolic ratios (metabolite to cocaine). They were further examined concerning background of request, hair color, body site of sample collection, sex, and metabolic ratios of the main metabolites (benzoylecgonine, norcocaine, and cocaethylene). All seized cocaine samples were positive for para- and meta-hydroxycocaine with a maximum percentage of 0.025 and 0.052 %, respectively; para- and meta-hydroxybenzoylecgonine were detected in 55 and 56 % of samples with a maximum percentage of 0.044 and 0.024 %, respectively. Analytical results of 424 hair samples (17.7 %) were interpreted as being predominantly from contamination; the majority of these samples were from traffic medicine cases (83.7 %). Metabolic ratios of minor hydroxycocaine metabolites were significantly higher in hair samples interpreted as originating from use than in samples interpreted as caused by contamination. Metabolic ratios for hydroxycocaines were significantly higher in forensic cases compared to abstinence controls and also in black hair compared to blond/gray hair. However, this was not the case for hydroxybenzoylecgonine metabolic ratios. No statistical difference was observed with regard to the donor's sex. Hydroxycocaine metabolic ratios increased significantly with increasing ratios of norcocaine and cocaethylene to cocaine, respectively. The study demonstrates that hydroxycocaine metabolites (including thresholds for their metabolic ratios) must be used for a reliable interpretation of positive cocaine results in hair samples.