Author Correction: Crowther et al. reply.

In this Brief Communications Arising Reply, the affiliation for author P. H. Templer was incorrectly listed as 'Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA' instead of 'Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA'. This has been corrected online.

Quantifying global soil carbon losses in response to warming.

The majority of the Earth's terrestrial carbon is stored in the soil. If anthropogenic warming stimulates the loss of this carbon to the atmosphere, it could drive further planetary warming. Despite evidence that warming enhances carbon fluxes to and from the soil, the net global balance between these responses remains uncertain. Here we present a comprehensive analysis of warming-induced changes in soil carbon stocks by assembling data from 49 field experiments located across North America, Europe and Asia. We find that the effects of warming are contingent on the size of the initial soil carbon stock, with considerable losses occurring in high-latitude areas. By extrapolating this empirical relationship to the global scale, we provide estimates of soil carbon sensitivity to warming that may help to constrain Earth system model projections. Our empirical relationship suggests that global soil carbon stocks in the upper soil horizons will fall by 30 ± 30 petagrams of carbon to 203 ± 161 petagrams of carbon under one degree of warming, depending on the rate at which the effects of warming are realized. Under the conservative assumption that the response of soil carbon to warming occurs within a year, a business-as-usual climate scenario would drive the loss of 55 ± 50 petagrams of carbon from the upper soil horizons by 2050. This value is around 12-17 per cent of the expected anthropogenic emissions over this period. Despite the considerable uncertainty in our estimates, the direction of the global soil carbon response is consistent across all scenarios. This provides strong empirical support for the idea that rising temperatures will stimulate the net loss of soil carbon to the atmosphere, driving a positive land carbon-climate feedback that could accelerate climate change.

Comparative pharmacokinetics of minocycline in foals and adult horses.

The objective of this study was to compare the pharmacokinetics of minocycline in foals vs. adult horses. Minocycline was administered to six healthy 6- to 9-week-old foals and six adult horses at a dose of 4 mg/kg intragastrically (IG) and 2 mg/kg intravenously (i.v.) in a cross-over design. Five additional oral doses were administered at 12-h intervals in foals. A microbiologic assay was used to measure minocycline concentration in plasma, urine, synovial fluid, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used to measure minocycline concentrations in pulmonary epithelial lining fluid (PELF) and bronchoalveolar (BAL) cells. After i.v. administration to foals, minocycline had a mean (±SD) elimination half-life of 8.5 ± 2.1 h, a systemic clearance of 113.3 ± 26.1 mL/h/kg, and an apparent volume of distribution of 1.24 ± 0.19 L/kg. Pharmacokinetic variables determined after i.v. administration to adult horses were not significantly different from those determined in foals. Bioavailability was significantly higher in foals (57.8 ± 19.3%) than in adult horses (32.0 ± 18.0%). Minocycline concentrations in PELF were higher than in other body fluids. Oral minocycline dosed at 4 mg/kg every 12 h might be adequate for the treatment of susceptible bacterial infections in foals.

Equine stomachs harbor an abundant and diverse mucosal microbiota.

Little is known about the gastric mucosal microbiota in healthy horses, and its role in gastric disease has not been critically examined. The present study used a combination of 16S rRNA bacterial tag-encoded pyrosequencing (bTEFAP) and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to characterize the composition and spatial distribution of selected gastric mucosal microbiota of healthy horses. Biopsy specimens of the squamous, glandular, antral, and any ulcerated mucosa were obtained from 6 healthy horses by gastroscopy and from 3 horses immediately postmortem. Pyrosequencing was performed on biopsy specimens from 6 of the horses and yielded 53,920 reads in total, with 631 to 4,345 reads in each region per horse. The microbiome segregated into two distinct clusters comprised of horses that were stabled, fed hay, and sampled at postmortem (cluster 1) and horses that were pastured on grass, fed hay, and biopsied gastroscopically after a 12-h fast (cluster 2). The types of bacteria obtained from different anatomic regions clustered by horse rather than region. The dominant bacteria in cluster 1 were Firmicutes (>83% reads/sample), mainly Streptococcus spp., Lactobacillus spp. and, Sarcina spp. Cluster 2 was more diverse, with predominantly Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes, consisting of Actinobacillus spp. Moraxella spp., Prevotella spp., and Porphyromonas spp. Helicobacter sp. sequences were not identified in any of 53,920 reads. FISH (n = 9) revealed bacteria throughout the stomach in close apposition to the mucosa, with significantly more Streptococcus spp. present in the glandular region of the stomach. The equine stomach harbors an abundant and diverse mucosal microbiota that varies by individual.

Plasma and pulmonary disposition of ceftiofur and its metabolites after intramuscular administration of ceftiofur crystalline free acid in weanling foals.

The objectives of this study were to determine the plasma and pulmonary disposition of ceftiofur crystalline free acid (CCFA) in weanling foals and to compare the plasma pharmacokinetic profile of weanling foals to that of adult horses. A single dose of CCFA was administered intramuscularly to six weanling foals and six adult horses at a dose of 6.6 mg/kg of body weight. Concentrations of desfuroylceftiofur acetamide (DCA) were determined in the plasma of all animals, and in pulmonary epithelial lining fluid (PELF) and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells of foals. After intramuscular (IM) administration to foals, median time to maximum plasma and PELF concentrations was 24 h (12-48 h). Mean (± SD) peak DCA concentration in plasma (1.44 ± 0.46 µg/mL) was significantly higher than that in PELF (0.46 ± 0.03 µg/mL) and BAL cells (0.024 ± 0.011 µg/mL). Time above the therapeutic target of 0.2 µg/mL was significantly longer in plasma (185 ± 20 h) than in PELF (107 ± 31 h). The concentration of DCA in BAL cells did not reach the therapeutic level. Adult horses had significantly lower peak plasma concentrations and area under the curve compared to foals. Based on the results of this study, CCFA administered IM at 6.6 mg/kg in weanling foals provided plasma and PELF concentrations above the therapeutic target of 0.2 µg/mL for at least 4 days and would be expected to be an effective treatment for pneumonia caused by Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus at doses similar to the adult label.

No evidence that chronic nitrogen additions increase photosynthesis in mature sugar maple forests.

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition can increase forest growth. Because N deposition commonly increases foliar N concentrations, it is thought that this increase in forest growth is a consequence of enhanced leaf-level photosynthesis. However, tests of this mechanism have been infrequent, and increases in photosynthesis have not been consistently observed in mature forests subject to chronic N deposition. In four mature northern hardwood forests in the north-central United States, chronic N additions (30 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1) as NaNO3 for 14 years) have increased aboveground growth but have not affected canopy leaf biomass or leaf area index. In order to understand the mechanism behind the increases in growth, we hypothesized that the NO3(-) additions increased foliar N concentrations and leaf-level photosynthesis in the dominant species in these forests (sugar maple, Acer saccharum). The NO3(-) additions significantly increased foliar N. However, there was no significant difference between the ambient and +NO3(-) treatments in two seasons (2006-2007) of instantaneous measurements of photosynthesis from either canopy towers or excised branches. In measurements on excised branches, photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency (micromol CO2 s(-1) g(-1) N) was significantly decreased (-13%) by NO3(-) additions. Furthermore, we found no consistent NO3(-) effect across all sites in either current foliage or leaf litter collected annually throughout the study (1993-2007) and analyzed for delta 13C and delta 18O, isotopes that can be used together to integrate changes in photosynthesis over time. We observed a small but significant NO3(-) effect on the average area and mass of individual leaves from the excised branches, but these differences varied by site and were countered by changes in leaf number. These photosynthesis and leaf area data together suggest that NO3(-) additions have not stimulated photosynthesis. There is no evidence that nutrient deficiencies have developed at these sites, so unlike other studies of photosynthesis in N-saturated forests, we cannot attribute the lack of a stimulation of photosynthesis to nutrient limitations. Rather than increases in C assimilation, the observed increases in aboveground growth at our study sites are more likely due to shifts in C allocation.

Utility of 2 immunological tests for antemortem diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (Sarcocystis neurona Infection) in naturally occurring cases.

BACKGROUND: Antemortem diagnosis of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is challenging. Limited information is available regarding a commercial test (surface antigen 1 [SAG-1] ELISA). Performance of another commercial test (indirect fluorescent antibody test [IFAT]) using samples from an independent group has not been well described. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: The primary goal was to evaluate the SAG-1 ELISA and IFAT using naturally occurring EPM cases. A secondary goal was to obtain more information regarding clinical presentation. ANIMALS: Hospital cases were admitted over 20 months and classified into 4 groups. Confirmed positive cases (n = 9) had asymmetric or multifocal neurologic deficits or both and postmortem lesions consistent with EPM. Confirmed negative cases (n = 17) had variable clinical signs and postmortem lesions consistent with another neurologic disease (or no lesions). Suspected positive cases (n = 10) had asymmetric or multifocal deficits or both, marked improvement after treatment for EPM, and other likely diseases excluded. Suspected negative cases (n = 29) had orthopedic disease and no neurologic deficits. METHODS: Results of immunological testing (SAG-1 ELISA and IFAT on serum or cerebrospinal fluid [CSF] or both), neurologic examinations, CSF analyses, and postmortem examinations were analyzed retrospectively. RESULTS: SAG-1 ELISA sensitivity was 12.5% (95% CI, 1.6-38.4) and specificity was 97.1% (95% CI, 84.7-99.9) using serum. IFAT sensitivity was 94.4% (95% CI, 72.7-99.9) and specificity was 85.2% (95% CI, 66.3-95.8) using serum; sensitivity was 92.3% (95% CI, 64.0-99.8) and specificity was 89.7% (95% CI, 72.7-97.8) using CSF. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Low sensitivity of the SAG-1 ELISA limited its usefulness for antemortem diagnosis of EPM in this patient population.

Signalment and clinical complaints initiating hospital admission, methods of diagnosis, and pathological findings associated with bovine lymphosarcoma (112 cases).

BACKGROUND: Lymphosarcoma in adult cattle has multiple manifestations. OBJECTIVE: To describe the signalment, clinical complaints, and tumor location, and to evaluate utility of diagnostic tests in cattle with lymphosarcoma. ANIMALS: Adult cattle admitted to Cornell University between January 1980 and December 2008 with a definitive diagnosis of lymphosarcoma. METHODS: Retrospective case study was conducted with a search of all medical records at Cornell University for cattle diagnosed with lymphosarcoma. Categorical data were analyzed with a Wilcoxon rank-sum tests. Sensitivities of diagnostic tests were calculated. RESULTS: There were 106 cows and 6 bulls (median age 5 years) examined for anorexia (34%), weight loss (16%), and fever (14%). The sensitivities of antemortem diagnostic tests performed were peripheral lymph node (PLN) wedge biopsy, 100%; surgical exploration and biopsy, 100%; pleurocentesis, 80%; pericardiocentesis, 67%; PLN fine-needle aspirate, 41%; abdominocentesis, 33%; and cerebral spinal fluid tap, 19%. Median peripheral blood lymphocyte count was 4,900 cells/muL, 10% of cattle were leukemic and 25% had lymphocytosis according to the Bendixen Key. The most frequently identified tumor locations (% of cattle) were the heart (66%), abomasum (61%), uterus (38%), kidney (32%), and epidural space (26%). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Predilection sites were similar to previously reports but we found a higher incidence of renal tumors and lower incidence of retrobulbar tumors. Knowledge of common clinical presentations, organ involvement, and sensitivities of diagnostic tests will aid informed decisions on the most appropriate tests and interpretation of their results in clinical cases of bovine lymphosarcoma.

Use of Liposomal Gentamicin for Treatment of 5 Foals with Experimentally Induced Rhodococcus equi Pneumonia.

BACKGROUND: Adverse effects of, and bacterial resistance to, macrolides used to treat Rhodococcus equi infections have prompted search for clinically effective alternative antimicrobials. Liposomal gentamicin (LG) is effective against R. equi in vitro and decreases tissue concentrations of R. equi in experimentally infected mice. Effectiveness of LG treatment of foals with R. equi pneumonia, however, has not been described. HYPOTHESIS: Liposomal gentamicin is safe and effective for treating foals with R. equi pneumonia. ANIMALS: Ten foals with experimentally induced R. equi pneumonia. METHODS: Pilot treatment trial. Foals with pneumonia induced by intrabronchial instillation of R. equi were randomly allocated to receive either clarithromycin combined with rifampin (CLR + RIF) PO or LG IV, and followed by daily physical examinations and weekly thoracic ultrasonography and serum creatinine concentration determinations until the resolution of clinical signs. Treatment success was defined as the resolution of clinical signs and ultrasonographically identified pulmonary abscesses. RESULTS: All 10 foals were successfully treated. Two of 5 foals treated with LG developed azotemia within 1 week; LG was discontinued and treatment switched to CLR + RIF for these foals. None of the CLR + RIF treated foals developed azotemia. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Liposomal gentamicin IV can be effective for treatment of R. equi pneumonia, but nephrotoxicity indicates that an alternative dosing interval or route (such as nebulization) will be needed before LG is adequately safe for clinical use. Larger comparative trials will be needed to evaluate the relative efficacy of a safer LG dosage regimen.

Pharmacokinetics, pulmonary disposition and tolerability of liposomal gentamicin and free gentamicin in foals.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING THE STUDY: Although gentamicin is highly active against Rhodococcus equi in vitro, its clinical efficacy has been limited presumably due to poor cellular uptake. Encapsulation of drugs in liposomes enhances their cellular uptake. OBJECTIVES: To compare the disposition of liposomal gentamicin (LG) and free gentamicin (FG) in the plasma, pulmonary epithelial lining fluid and bronchoalveolar cells of healthy foals after i.v. administration or by nebulisation, and to assess the tolerability of the drug after repeated i.v. dosing. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental study. METHODS: Eight healthy foals received a single i.v. or nebulised dose (6.6 mg/kg bwt) of LG or FG in a balanced Latin square design, with a 14-day washout period between treatments. Subsequently, 12 healthy foals were given either LG or FG at 6.6 mg/kg bwt i.v. q. 24 h for 7 doses and urinary protein, creatinine, γ-glutamyltransferase and electrolytes were measured on Days 0, 3 and 7 to quantify renal injury. Concentrations of gentamicin were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS: After i.v. administration, LG had a significantly higher mean (± s.d.) half-life (16.3 ± 3.5 vs. 6.2 ± 1.8 h) and volume of distribution (2.00 ± 1.03 vs. 0.72 ± 0.32 l/kg bwt) compared with FG. Peak gentamicin concentrations in bronchoalveolar cells were significantly higher for LG compared with FG after administration by both the i.v. (5.27 ± 2.67 vs. 2.98 ± 1.67 mg/l) and the nebulised (4.47 ± 2.66 vs. 1.49 ± 0.57 mg/l) routes. Liposomal gentamicin was well tolerated by all foals and indices of renal injury were not significantly different from those of foals administered FG. CONCLUSIONS: Administration of LG is well tolerated and results in higher intracellular drug concentrations than FG. Liposomal gentamicin warrants further investigation for the treatment of infections caused by intracellular pathogens such as Rhodococcus equi.

Adverse reactions in horses that underwent general anesthesia and cervical myelography.

BACKGROUND: The study was prompted by a perceived high prevalence of myelographic complications varying in severity and type, and attributed to the contrast material or the procedure. HYPOTHESES: 1. Any adverse reaction (AAR) is associated with a change in CSF volume induced either by removal of CSF or addition of contrast material. 2. AAR occurs more frequently in horses with higher premyelography neurologic grade. 3. Nonspecific hyperthermia is attenuated by anti-inflammatory and osmotic agents. ANIMALS: Horses (n = 278) that underwent myelography between 2000 and 2012 at 5 institutions: A (87), B (68), C (65), D (46), and E (12). METHODS: Multi-institutional, retrospective, observational cross-sectional study. RESULTS: AAR were observed in 95/278 (34%) horses, were associated with longer general anesthesia time (P = .04) and higher contrast-medium volume (P = .04); euthanasia because of AAR was performed in 5/278 (2%) horses. Adverse neurologic reactions were the most common type of complication observed occurring in 15/278 (5%) and 42/235 (18%) of horses in the intra- and postmyelography periods. A relationship between AAR and premyelography neurologic grade was not identified (P = .31). Nonspecific hyperthermia was observed in 25/235 (11%) horses; no relationship was observed with administration of anti-inflammatory drugs and osmotic agents (P = .30). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: The category of AAR occurred in one-third of the horses generally was mild and self-limiting. These reactions were associated with increased contrast-medium volume and longer anesthesia time; but, no specific procedural recommendations could be made because of small odds ratios (OR) of <2 for each 1 mL increase in contrast material and for each 1 minute of additional anesthesia time.

Relationships between fine root dynamics and nitrogen availability in Michigan northern hardwood forests.

Minirhizotrons were used to observe fine root (≤1 mm) production, mortality, and longevity over 2 years in four sugar-maple-dominated northern hardwood forests located along a latitudinal temperature gradient. The sites also differed in N availability, allowing us to assess the relative influences of soil temperature and N availability in controlling fine root lifespans. Root production and mortality occurred throughout the year, with most production occurring in the early portion of the growing season (by mid-July). Mortality was distributed much more evenly throughout the year. For surface fine roots (0-10 cm deep), significant differences in root longevity existed among the sites, with median root lifespans for root cohorts produced in 1994 ranging from 405 to 540 days. Estimates of fine root turnover, based on the average of annual root production and mortality as a proportion of standing crop, ranged from 0.50 to 0.68 year-1 for roots in the upper 30 cm of soil. The patterns across sites in root longevity and turnover did not follow the north to south temperature gradient, but rather corresponded to site differences in N availability, with longer average root lifespans and lower root turnover occurring where N availability was greater. This suggests the possibility that roots are maintained as long as the benefit (nutrients) they provide outweighs the C cost of keeping them alive. Root N concentrations and respiration rates (at a given temperature) were also higher at sites where N availability was greater. It is proposed that greater metabolic activity for roots in nitrogen-rich zones leads to greater carbohydrate allocation to those roots, and that a reduction in root C sink strength when local nutrients are depleted provides a mechanism through which root lifespan is regulated in these forests.

Obstetric profiles and perinatal mortality among Pacific Island immigrants in New South Wales, 1990-93.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the obstetric profile and perinatal mortality of Pacific Island-born women giving birth in New South Wales (NSW) and assess risk factors associated with the high perinatal death rate previously noted in this immigrant group. METHOD: Retrospective cohort study based on the Midwives Data Collection in NSW from 1990 to 1993. Births to 5,034 Pacific Island-born women were compared with births to 256,843 Australian-born women. RESULTS: Pacific Island-born women had fewer teenage pregnancies and were of an older age and higher parity. They were more likely to be married or in a de facto relationship and to present for antenatal care later in the pregnancy. The proportion of low birthweight and preterm birth was similar in the two groups but Pacific Islanders had a higher perinatal mortality rate (14.6/1,000 vs. 10.3/1,000, RR = 1.42, 95% CI = 1.13-1.54). Even at normal and high birthweights, infants of Pacific Island-born women were at greater risk of perinatal death. After adjusting for maternal factors (marital status, insurance status, parity and maternal age) Pacific Islanders were 30% more likely to have a perinatal death (OR = 1.30, 95% CI 1.07-1.54). CONCLUSIONS: Further analyses of the causes of perinatal death in Pacific Island-born women are needed so appropriate interventions can be implemented. IMPLICATIONS: The need for the design and evaluation of culturally specific services aimed at improving antenatal care attendance in Pacific Islanders is emphasised. Conventional risk assessment may not adequately predict adverse perinatal outcomes in all populations.

Effect of age on the pharmacokinetics of a single daily dose of gentamicin sulfate in healthy foals.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Therapeutic drug monitoring in a small number of foals of various ages indicates that the standard adult dose of 6.6 mg/kg bwt q. 24 h for gentamicin is too low and a dose of 12 mg/kg bwt has been proposed. The pharmacokinetics of this dosage in foals and the ages at which this higher dose should be used have not previously been investigated. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of age on the pharmacokinetics of a single 12 mg/kg bwt i.v. dose of gentamicin in foals. METHODS: Six healthy foals were given a single i.v. dose of gentamicin at 1-3 days, 2, 4, 8 and 12 weeks of age. Plasma concentrations were measured using LC-MS/MS. RESULTS: Elimination half-life (mean ± s.d.) was significantly longer in 1-3-day-old foals (8.2 ± 2.0 h) than in foals 4 weeks of age (3.7 ± 1.5 h) or older. Volume of distribution was significantly higher in 1-3-day-old foals (0.75 ± 0.20 l/kg bwt) than in 8- (0.27 ± 0.10 l/kg bwt) or 12-week-old foals (0.29 ± 0.11 l/kg bwt). Concentrations of gentamicin 1 h after administration were significantly lower in 1-3-day-old foals (20.52 ± 2.07 µg/ml) than in all other age groups (>42.16 ± 17.57 µg/ml). Concentrations of gentamicin 24 h after administration were significantly higher in the 1-3-day-old foals (1.97 ± 0.90 µg/ml) than in all the other age groups (<0.85 ± 0.46 µg/ml). CONCLUSIONS: The pharmacokinetics of gentamicin change considerably in the first 2 weeks of life. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Intravenous administration of gentamicin at a dose of 12 mg/kg bwt q. 36 h would be required in foals less than 2 weeks of age. In foals 2 weeks of age or older, a lower dose of 6.6 mg/kg bwt given q. 24 h was predicted to be adequate.

Antibody responses following administration of a Cryptosporidium parvum rCP15/60 vaccine to pregnant cattle.

Cryptosporidium parvum is a zoonotic Apicomplexa-protozoan pathogen that causes gastroenteritis and diarrhea in mammals worldwide. Globally, C. parvum is ubiquitous on dairy operations and is the pathogen most commonly diagnosed in association with calf diarrhea. Here, we describe the antibody response in 20 pregnant cows to a recombinant C. parvum oocyst surface protein (rCP15/60) vaccine compared with 20 controls, and the antibody response in 19 calves fed the rCP15/60-immune colostrum from these vaccinated cows compared with 20 control calves. Cows vaccinated with rCP15/60 produced a significantly greater antibody response compared to controls (p<0.0001) and this response was strongly associated with the subsequent level of colostral antibody (r=0.82, p<0.0001). Calves fed rCP15/60-immune colostrum showed a dose-dependent absorption of antibody, also associated with colostral antibody levels (r=0.83, p<0.0001). Currently, drug therapy against cryptosporidiosis is limited making development of an effective vaccine attractive. This report describes the first stages in development of a C. parvum rCP15/60 vaccine designed to confer passive protection to calves against cryptosporidiosis.

The prevalence of Cryptosporidium, and identification of the Cryptosporidium horse genotype in foals in New York State.

To date, little is known about the prevalence, genotypes and zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium spp. affecting horses, especially in North America. A cross-sectional study was conducted in New York, USA between February 25th and May 1st 2009. Fecal samples were collected from three hundred and forty nine 1-10-week-old foals and their dams on 14 different broodmare farms. All fecal samples were screened for Cryptosporidium spp. using a direct immunofluorescence assay (DFA). DNA extraction and PCR-RFLP analysis of the small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene were performed on all the foal samples. PCR-positive samples were subtyped by DNA sequencing of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. On DFA, 13/175 (7.4%) foal samples and 3/174 (1.7%) mare samples were designated positive for Cryptosporidium spp., whereas on SSU rRNA-based PCR, 9/175 (5.1%) foal samples were positive. Cryptosporidium PCR-positive foals were significantly older (13-40 days, median age of 28 days) compared with negative foals (4-67 days, median 18 days, p=0.02). The number of foals with diarrhea or soft feces was not significantly different between positive and negative foals (p=0.09). PCR-RFLP analysis of the SSU rRNA gene and DNA sequencing of the gp60 gene identified the parasite as subtype VIaA14G2 of the horse genotype. This is the first report of a group of foals affected with the Cryptosporidium horse genotype, which has recently been detected in humans. As other contemporary molecular studies have identified C. parvum in foals, it seems that equine cryptosporidiosis should be considered a zoonosis.

Reflection: nursing's practice and education panacea?

Nurses are now directed to 'reflect effectively and practice reflectively'. When there is scant evidence to support the use of reflection, why does the United Kingdom Central Council, English National Board for Nursing Midwifery and Health Visiting and institutes of nurse education insist that nurses, at all levels of experience, reflect? Before developing the debate in relation to the robustness or otherwise of the concept of 'reflection' and its application to practice, a discussion as to what constitutes nursing knowledge, followed by an examination of the main theories related to adult learning, is presented. The paper develops to encompass a critical examination of both theoretical and applied perspectives on reflection. Conceptual issues and assumptions related to reflection are explored. Key areas considered are whether the practice of reflection facilitates the improvement of one's knowledge, helps to generate theory and results in one becoming a more critical practitioner with resulting benefits for patients. It will be argued that reflective theory and practice has not yet been adequately tested and that there is a pressing need for evidence to demonstrate irrefutably the effectiveness of reflection on nursing practice, particularly with respect to patient outcomes.