Design and Optimization of GeSn Waveguide Photodetectors for 2-µm Band Silicon Photonics.

Silicon photonics is emerging as a competitive platform for electronic-photonic integrated circuits (EPICs) in the 2 µm wavelength band where GeSn photodetectors (PDs) have proven to be efficient PDs. In this paper, we present a comprehensive theoretical study of GeSn vertical p-i-n homojunction waveguide photodetectors (WGPDs) that have a strain-free and defect-free GeSn active layer for 2 µm Si-based EPICs. The use of a narrow-gap GeSn alloy as the active layer can fully cover entire the 2 µm wavelength band. The waveguide structure allows for decoupling the photon-absorbing path and the carrier collection path, thereby allowing for the simultaneous achievement of high-responsivity and high-bandwidth (BW) operation at the 2 µm wavelength band. We present the theoretical models to calculate the carrier saturation velocities, optical absorption coefficient, responsivity, 3-dB bandwidth, zero-bias resistance, and detectivity, and optimize this device structure to achieve highest performance at the 2 µm wavelength band. The results indicate that the performance of the GeSn WGPD has a strong dependence on the Sn composition and geometric parameters. The optimally designed GeSn WGPD with a 10% Sn concentration can give responsivity of 1.55 A/W, detectivity of 6.12 × 1010 cmHz½W-1 at 2 µm wavelength, and ~97 GHz BW. Therefore, this optimally designed GeSn WGPD is a potential candidate for silicon photonic EPICs offering high-speed optical communications.

Non-Hermitian Sensing in Photonics and Electronics: A Review.

Recently, non-Hermitian Hamiltonians have gained a lot of interest, especially in optics and electronics. In particular, the existence of real eigenvalues of non-Hermitian systems has opened a wide set of possibilities, especially, but not only, for sensing applications, exploiting the physics of exceptional points. In particular, the square root dependence of the eigenvalue splitting on different design parameters, exhibited by 2 × 2 non-Hermitian Hamiltonian matrices at the exceptional point, paved the way to the integration of high-performance sensors. The square root dependence of the eigenfrequencies on the design parameters is the reason for a theoretically infinite sensitivity in the proximity of the exceptional point. Recently, higher-order exceptional points have demonstrated the possibility of achieving the nth root dependence of the eigenfrequency splitting on perturbations. However, the exceptional sensitivity to external parameters is, at the same time, the major drawback of non-Hermitian configurations, leading to the high influence of noise. In this review, the basic principles of PT-symmetric and anti-PT-symmetric Hamiltonians will be shown, both in photonics and in electronics. The influence of noise on non-Hermitian configurations will be investigated and the newest solutions to overcome these problems will be illustrated. Finally, an overview of the newest outstanding results in sensing applications of non-Hermitian photonics and electronics will be provided.

GeSn resonant-cavity-enhanced photodetectors for efficient photodetection at the 2 µm wavelength band.

The 2 µm wavelength band has recently gained increased attention for potential applications in next-generation optical communication. However, it is still challenging to achieve effective photodetection in the 2 µm wavelength band using group-IV-based semiconductors. Here we present an investigation of GeSn resonant-cavity-enhanced photodetectors (RCEPDs) on silicon-on-insulator substrates for efficient photodetection in the 2 µm wavelength band. Narrow-bandgap GeSn alloys are used as the active layer to extend the photodetection range to cover the 2 µm wavelength band, and the optical responsivity is significantly enhanced by the resonant cavity effect as compared to a reference GeSn photodetector. Temperature-dependent experiments demonstrate that the GeSn RCEPDs can have a wider photodetection range and higher responsivity in the 2 µm wavelength band at higher temperatures because of the bandgap shrinkage. These results suggest that our GeSn RCEPDs are promising for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor-compatible, efficient, uncooled optical receivers in the 2 µm wavelength band for a wide range of applications.

Tunable optical-microwave filters optimized for 100 MHz resolution.

New continuously tunable RF-spectrum analyzers, RF receivers, and RF signal generators are proposed and analyzed for the silicon-on-insulator integrated-photonic platform at the ~1550 nm wavelength. These RF system-on-a-chip applications are enabled by a new narrowband 2x2 Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) tuned filters for reconfigurable multiplexing, demultiplexing and RF channel selection. The filter can be optimized for ~100 MHz 3-dB bandwidth (BW) by utilizing N closely coupled Bragg-grating resonators to form one effective waveguide resonator in the single-mode silicon nanowire used for each MZI arm. The number of periods M within each individual resonator is selected to engineer BW in the 0.1 to 1 GHz range. Butterworth design is employed. Continuous tuning of the 100 MHz-BW devices over 18.6 GHz has been simulated by using local micron-scale thermo-optical heater stripes on the MZI arms with a temperature rise from 0 to 48K. For the case of N = 3 and 100-nm silicon side teeth, some representative performance predictions are: insertion loss (IL) = -10.7 dB, BW = 80.5 MHz and L = 113 µm for M = 58; while IL = -0.74 dB, BW = 1210 MHz and L = 86 µm for M = 44.

Reconfigurable optical-microwave filter banks using thermo-optically tuned Bragg Mach-Zehnder devices.

A new reconfigurable, tunable on-chip optical filter bank is proposed and analyzed for the silicon-on-insulator platform at the ~1550 nm wavelength. The waveguided bank is a cascade connection of 2 x 2 Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) filters. An identical standing-wave resonator is situated in each MZI "arm." Using the thermo-optic (TO) effect to perturb this waveguide's index, the TO heater stripes provide continuous tuning of the filter by shifting the resonance smoothly along the wavelength axis. To reconfigure and program the cascade array, a broadband 2 x 2 MZI-related switch is inserted between adjacent filters. The novel TO switch, described here, can provide either single or double interconnection of 2 x 2 filters. The filter resonator is a new in-guide array of N closely coupled phase-shifted Bragg-grating resonators that provide one resonant spectral profile with 5 to 100 GHz bandwidth. The length of each grating cavity in the N group is chosen according to the Butterworth filter technique, and this gives high peak transmission for the composite. The predicted spectral profiles of a three-stage cascade show two-or-three peaks, or two-or-three notches with movable wavelength-locations as well as tunable wavelength-separations between those features. A tunable notch within a wider movable passband is also feasible. Potential applications include microwave photonics, wavelength-selective systems, optical spectroscopy and optical sensing.

Mach-Zehnder crossbar switching and tunable filtering using N-coupled waveguide Bragg resonators.

This theoretical modeling-and-simulation paper presents designs and projected performance of ~1500-nm silicon-on-insulator 2 x 2 Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) optical crossbar switches and tunable filters that are actuated by thermo-optical (TO) means. A TO heater stripe is assumed to be on the top of each waveguided arm in the interferometer. Each strip-waveguide arm contains an inline set of N-fold coupled, phase-shifted Bragg-grating resonators. To implement accurate and realistic designs, a mixed full-vectorial mathematical model based upon the finite-element, coupled-mode, and transfer-matrix approaches was employed. The Butterworth-filter technique for grating length and weighting was used. The resulting narrowband waveguide-transmission spectral shape was better-than-Lorentzian because of its steeper sidewalls (faster rolloff). The metrics of crossbar switching, insertion loss (IL) and crosstalk (CT), were evaluated for choices of grating strength and TO-induced change in the grating-waveguide refractive index. The predicted ILs and CTs were quite superior to those cited in the literature for experimental and theoretical MZI devices based upon silicon nanobeam resonators. This was true for the Type-I and Type-II resonator addressing discussed here. Finally, we examined the TO-tunable composite filter profiles that are feasible by connecting two or more Type-I MZIs in an optical series arrangement. A variety of narrow filter shapes, tunable over ~2 nm, was found.

Optically pumped lasing at 3 µm from compositionally graded GeSn with tin up to 22.3.

The recent demonstration of the GeSn laser opened a promising route towards the monolithic integration of light sources on the Si platform. A GeSn laser with higher Sn content is highly desirable to enhance the emission efficiency and to cover longer wavelength. This Letter reports optically pumped edge-emitting GeSn lasers operating at 3 µm, whose device structure featured Sn compositionally graded with a maximum Sn content of 22.3%. By using a 1950-nm laser pumping in comparison with a 1064-nm pumping, the local heating and quantum defect were effectively reduced, which improved laser performance in terms of higher maximum lasing temperature and lower threshold.

Study of direct bandgap type-I GeSn/GeSn double quantum well with improved carrier confinement.

The GeSn-based quantum wells (QWs) have been investigated recently for the development of efficient GeSn emitters. Although our previous study indicated that the direct bandgap well with type-I band alignment was achieved, the demonstrated QW still has insufficient carrier confinement. In this work, we report the systematic study of light emission from the Ge0.91Sn0.09/Ge0.85Sn0.15/Ge0.91Sn0.09 double QW structure. Two double QW samples, with the thicknesses of Ge0.85Sn0.15 well of 6 and 19 nm, were investigated. Band structure calculations revealed that both samples feature type-I band alignment. Compared with our previous study, by increasing the Sn composition in GeSn barrier and well, the QW layer featured increased energy separation between the indirect and direct bandgaps towards a better direct gap semiconductor. Moreover, the thicker well sample exhibited improved carrier confinement compared to the thinner well sample due to lowered first quantized energy level in the Γ valley. To identify the optical transition characteristics, photoluminescence (PL) study using three pump lasers with different penetration depths and photon energies was performed. The PL spectra confirmed the direct bandgap well feature and the improved carrier confinement, as significantly enhanced QW emission from the thicker well sample was observed.

Study of a SiGeSn/GeSn/SiGeSn structure toward direct bandgap type-I quantum well for all group-IV optoelectronics.

A SiGeSn/GeSn/SiGeSn single quantum well structure was grown using an industry standard chemical vapor deposition reactor with low-cost commercially available precursors. The material characterization revealed the precisely controlled material growth process. Temperature-dependent photoluminescence spectra were correlated with band structure calculation for a structure accurately determined by high-resolution x-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. Based on the result, a systematic study of SiGeSn and GeSn bandgap energy separation and barrier heights versus material compositions and strain was conducted, leading to a practical design of a type-I direct bandgap quantum well.

Reconfigurable lattice mesh designs for programmable photonic processors.

We propose and analyse two novel mesh design geometries for the implementation of tunable optical cores in programmable photonic processors. These geometries are the hexagonal and the triangular lattice. They are compared here to a previously proposed square mesh topology in terms of a series of figures of merit that account for metrics that are relevant to on-chip integration of the mesh. We find that that the hexagonal mesh is the most suitable option of the three considered for the implementation of the reconfigurable optical core in the programmable processor.

Investigation of mid-infrared second harmonic generation in strained germanium waveguides.

In this paper we present a detailed theoretical investigation of second harmonic generation in strained germanium waveguides operating at the mid infrared pump wavelength of 4 µm. The effective second order susceptibility has been estimated through a multiphysics approach considering the residual stress of the SiNx cladding film. Furthermore, general physical features have been investigated by means of a comparative analysis of SHG performance as a function of input pump power, linear and nonlinear phase mismatching, effective recombination carrier lifetime, and temperature, taking into account both continuous and pulsed regimes. Finally, periodically poled germanium devices have been explored with the aim to improve the SHG efficiency. In the same operative conditions, efficiencies of 0.6% and 0.0018% have been obtained in poled and not-poled waveguides, respectively.

Systematic study of Si-based GeSn photodiodes with 2.6 µm detector cutoff for short-wave infrared detection.

Normal-incidence Ge1-xSnx photodiode detectors with Sn compositions of 7 and 10% have been demonstrated. Such detectors were based on Ge/Ge1-xSnx/Ge double heterostructures grown directly on a Si substrate via a chemical vapor deposition system. A temperature-dependence study of these detectors was conducted using both electrical and optical characterizations from 300 to 77 K. Spectral response up to 2.6 µm was achieved for a 10% Sn device at room temperature. The peak responsivity and specific detectivity (D*) were measured to be 0.3 A/W and 4 × 109 cmHz1/2W-1 at 1.55 µm, respectively. The spectral D* of a 7% Sn device at 77 K was only one order-of-magnitude lower than that of an extended-InGaAs photodiode operating in the same wavelength range, indicating the promising future of GeSn-based photodetectors.

Theoretical demonstration of Brillouin lasing effect in racetrack resonators based on germanium waveguides in the mid-infrared.

In this Letter, we present a theoretical investigation of integrated racetrack Brillouin lasers based on germanium waveguides that are buried in silicon nitride and operate at a wavelength of 4 µm. General design equations in a steady-state regime have been carried out to determine the threshold power and the emitted Stokes power as a function of the resonance mismatch and coupling factor. The pulling effect as induced by the Brillouin gain dispersion and the pushing effects originated by SPM and XPM effects have been accurately investigated to predict the lasing frequency.

Ge0.975Sn0.025 320 × 256 imager chip for 1.6-1.9 µm infrared vision.

We report the experimental fabrication and testing of a GeSn-based 320×256 image sensor focal plane array operating at -15°C in the 1.6-1.9 µm spectral range. For image readout, the 2D pixel array of Ge/GeSn/Ge p-i-n heterophotodiodes was flip-chip bonded to a customized silicon CMOS readout integrated circuit. The resulting camera chip was operated using back-side illumination. Successful imaging of a tungsten-filament light bulb was attained with observation of gray-scale "hot spot" infrared features not seen using a visible-light camera. The Ge wafer used in the present imaging array will be replaced in future tests by a germanium-on-silicon wafer offering thin-film Ge upon Si or on SiO2/Si. This is expected to increase the infrared responsivity obtained in back-side illumination, and it will allow an imager in a Si-based foundry to be manufactured. Our experiments are a significant step toward the realization of group IV near-mid-infrared imaging systems, such as those for night vision.

Investigation of germanium Raman lasers for the mid-infrared.

In this paper we present a detailed theoretical investigation of integrated racetrack Raman lasers based on the germanium material system operating in the mid-infrared beyond the germanium two-photon absorption cut-off wavelength of 3.17 µm. The effective Raman gain has been estimated in waveguides based on germanium-on-silicon, germanium-on-SOI and germanium-on-Si3N4 technology platforms as a function of their crystallographic orientations. Furthermore, general design guidelines have been determined by means of a comparative analysis of Raman laser performance, i.e. the threshold power, polarization and directionality of the excited Stokes signals as a function of racetrack cavity length and directional-coupler dimensions. Finally, the emitted Raman laser power has been evaluated as a function of overall propagation losses and operative wavelengths up to 3.8 µm, while the time dynamics of Raman lasers has been simulated assuming continuous and pulse waves as input pump signals.

Temperature dependent spectral response and detectivity of GeSn photoconductors on silicon for short wave infrared detection.

The GeSn direct gap material system, with Si complementary-metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) compatibility, presents a promising solution for direct incorporation of focal plane arrays with short wave infrared detection on Si. A temperature dependence study of GeSn photoconductors with 0.9, 3.2, and 7.0% Sn was conducted using both electrical and optical characterizations from 300 to 77 K. The GeSn layers were grown on Si substrates using a commercially available chemical vapor deposition reactor in a Si CMOS compatible process. Carrier activation energies due to ionization and trap states are extracted from the temperature dependent dark I-V characteristics. The temperature dependent spectral response of each photoconductor was measured, and a maximum long wavelength response to 2.1 µm was observed for the 7.0% Sn sample. The DC responsivity measured at 1.55 µm showed around two orders of magnitude improvement at reduced temperatures for all samples compared to room temperature measurements. The noise current and temperature dependent specific detectivity (D*) were also measured for each sample at 1.55 µm, and a maximum D* value of 1 × 10(9) cm·âˆšHz/W was observed at 77 K.

Modeling Study of Si3N4 Waveguides on a Sapphire Platform for Photonic Integration Applications.

Sapphire has various applications in photonics due to its broadband transparency, high-contrast index, and chemical and physical stability. Photonics integration on the sapphire platform has been proposed, along with potentially high-performance lasers made of group III-V materials. In parallel with developing active devices for photonics integration applications, in this work, silicon nitride optical waveguides on a sapphire substrate were analyzed using the commercial software Comsol Multiphysics in a spectral window of 800~2400 nm, covering the operating wavelengths of III-V lasers, which could be monolithically or hybridly integrated on the same substrate. A high confinement factor of ~90% near the single-mode limit was obtained, and a low bending loss of ~0.01 dB was effectively achieved with the bending radius reaching 90 µm, 70 µm, and 40 µm for wavelengths of 2000 nm, 1550 nm, and 850 nm, respectively. Furthermore, the use of a pedestal structure or a SiO2 bottom cladding layer has shown potential to further reduce bending losses. The introduction of a SiO2 bottom cladding layer effectively eliminates the influence of the substrate's larger refractive index, resulting in further improvement in waveguide performance. The platform enables tightly built waveguides and small bending radii with high field confinement and low propagation losses, showcasing silicon nitride waveguides on sapphire as promising passive components for the development of high-performance and cost-effective PICs.

Interband scattering in a slow light photonic crystal waveguide under electro-optic tuning.

The evolution of the transmission spectrum of a photonic crystal waveguide under electro-optic tuning was studied in the band of an odd TE-like mode. The spectral signature of the interband scattering from the TM-like mode to the odd TE-like mode was characterized at various bias levels. The shift of the odd-mode band was determined based on a statistical approach to overcome the spectral noise. Simulations were performed to explain the spectral shift based on electro-optic and thermo-optic effects in the active photonic crystal structures. Potential impact of interband scattering on indirect interband-transition-based optical isolators is discussed and potential remedies are offered.

Power-Dependent Investigation of Photo-Response from GeSn-Based p-i-n Photodetector Operating at High Power Density.

We report an investigation on the photo-response from a GeSn-based photodetector using a tunable laser with a range of incident light power. An exponential increase in photocurrent and an exponential decay of responsivity with increase in incident optical power intensity were observed at higher optical power range. Time-resolved measurement provided evidence that indicated monomolecular and bimolecular recombination mechanisms for the photo-generated carriers for different incident optical power intensities. This investigation establishes the appropriate range of optical power intensity for GeSn-based photodetector operation.

Photonic crystal ring resonators: characteristics and applications.

We review the characteristics and applications of photonic crystal ring resonators (PCRRs), which can potentially provide a good alternative to the traditional micro ring resonators, as one of the key contributors to the emerging low-power nanophotonic technology. Applying numerical analysis together with the theory of mode superposition, the properties of PCRRs have been comprehensively investigated. We will report PCRR key characteristics, including diameter (D)-dependent loss, quality factor (Q), and free spectral range (FSR). No size-dependent loss was found in PCRRs, unlike the approximately 1/D dependent loss in micro-strip resonators, making PCRRs a promising candidate for ultra-compact ring resonators.