Measuring theory of mind in children. Psychometric properties of the ToM Storybooks.

Although research on Theory-of-Mind (ToM) is often based on single task measurements, more comprehensive instruments result in a better understanding of ToM development. The ToM Storybooks is a new instrument measuring basic ToM-functioning and associated aspects. There are 34 tasks, tapping various emotions, beliefs, desires and mental-physical distinctions. Four studies on the validity and reliability of the test are presented, in typically developing children (n = 324, 3-12 years) and children with PDD-NOS (n = 30). The ToM Storybooks have good psychometric qualities. A component analysis reveals five components corresponding with the underlying theoretical constructs. The internal consistency, test-retest reliability, inter-rater reliability, construct validity and convergent validity are good. The ToM Storybooks can be used in research as well as in clinical settings.

Executive functioning in children with ASD: an analysis of the BRIEF.

The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions (BRIEF) screens for executive function deficits in 5- to 18-year-olds. Data of three autism subgroups, according to DSM-IV-TR criteria (N = 35 Autistic Disorder, N = 27 Asperger's Disorder and N = 65 PDD-NOS), were analyzed. The total group has elevated scores on almost all BRIEF scales. The Shift scale is clinically elevated, reflecting a deficit in cognitive flexibility. The BRIEF scales are not found to discriminate among the autism spectrum disorder (ASD) subgroups. The relation between BRIEF and IQ is complex. Possible influencing factors are discussed. Finally, it is recommended to omit the Negativity scale as a validity index in children with ASD and to consider a high score on this index as a unique characteristic of their BRIEF profile, reflecting rigidity problems.

An exploration of person perception abilities in children with a pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified.

This explorative study investigates differences in person perception abilities between a group of children diagnosed as having a Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDDNOS) and a group of normal children of the same age and sex. Person perception, a social-cognitive skill, concerns the way in which children conceptualise other people, their intentions, attitudes, traits and emotions (central), as well as their overt behaviour and their physical characteristics (peripheral). Person perception was investigated by means of a free-person description, in which the child was asked to describe another person. Children with a PDDNOS used more peripheral and less central statements than the control group to describe another person. However, these differences seemed to reflect differences in intelligence between the two groups, rather than differences in a specific social-cognitive skill. The results need to be replicated, but seem to be in line with other studies that suggest that there may be subgroups of the autistic spectrum that show severe social impairment but have good social-cognitive abilities.

Social-cognitive abilities in children with lesser variants of autism: skill deficits or failure to apply skills?

The present study re-examined the ability of children with lesser variants of autism (classified as PDD-NOS) to infer emotions of other people and to describe others in terms of inner, psychological characteristics. It also explores the hypothesis that these children may have the skill to infer mental states of other people, but fail to use these skills spontaneously. Children with lesser variants of autism and normal control children matched for age, sex and intelligence were given three structured emotional role-taking tasks and asked to give two spontaneous descriptions of peers. The results showed that both groups did not differ with respect to their ability to infer other people's emotions in the structured role-taking tasks. In contrast, significant differences were found on the free person descriptions: the children with PDD-NOS used fewer inner, psychological characteristics to describe peers.

Theory of mind in children with 'lesser variants' of autism: a longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: The study investigated the development of theory-of-mind (ToM) knowledge in children with lesser variants' of autism (PDD-NOS) over a period thought to be critical for ToM development (i.e., 3 to 5 years of age). METHOD: The sample included 11 children with PDD-NOS; 23 normally developing children were included for cross-sectional comparison and 13 normally developing children for longitudinal comparison. The groups were comparable in verbal and non-verbal mental age. Two storybooks were used for repeated assessment of various aspects of the children's theory of mind: emotion recognition, the distinction between physical and mental entities, prediction of behaviour and emotions on the basis of desires and prediction of behaviour and emotions on the basis of beliefs. RESULTS: The results showed that the children with PDD-NOS had specific difficulties in understanding and predicting other people's emotions on the basis of situational cues, desires and beliefs. However, their ability to predict actions from beliefs and desires were relatively intact. Compared to the normally developing children, these children achieved lower levels of theory-of-mind knowledge, both at time of initial assessment and approximately 6 months later. CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest that the theory-of-mind development of children with PDD-NOS is both delayed and deviant. The growth pattem of theory-of-mind skills in children with PDD-NOS seemed to be qualitatively different from the growth pattern found in the group of normally developing children.

Emotional role-taking abilities of children with a pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified.

Seven to 12-year-old children with a Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDDNOS) were compared with normal, healthy children of the same age and sex on three different emotional role-taking tasks. In these tasks, children had to use person-specific information to make an inference about another child's emotional reaction and behaviour, Significant differences were found between the PDDNOS group and control group: PDDNOS children performed worse on all three role-taking tasks. However, the differences on one of these tasks could be completely explained by intelligence differences between the two groups. On the other tasks, differences could not or be partially explained by intelligence differences. The results of this study led to the formulation of a more specific hypothesis, namely that PDDNOS children might have problems interpreting social information when affectively charged background information has to be used.